Псевдонаучная терминология: лингвостилистический и когнитивно-прагматический аспекты (на материале современного английского языка)

Теперь проанализируем парапсихологию на примере текста. Сопоставим ее с текстом по психологии.

 

Псевдонаучная статья

Научная статья

Astral traveling through yogic methods By yoga teacher Gregorian Bivolaru   An earthly being that wishes to access through astral projection the high spheres of the astral must have an elevated frequency of vibration of his auric energies, otherwise she might face the destination point of an astral travel to areas with gloomy and frightening scenery. Saints, advanced yogis, clairvoyants, wise men and prophets often tell about their travels to such paradisiacal places that never existed on physical geographic map of the earth and they describe the wonderful beings they met. The natural place of the astral body is the astral universe. During sleep, the astral body of a person can sometimes separate in a perfectly conscious way from the physical form and then travel instantly in the astral universe, at hundreds, even billions of light years, visiting in this way the mysterious sublime worlds. The physical’s body desire to sleep can be explained also by the natural need the astral body feels to separate from the limits imposed by the flesh in order to recharge with energy, love, sublime states, information and images. Traveling to the mysterious astral worlds helps us to contact in a deep level wonderful beings, spiritually evolved entities, to meet the dear ones that «death» had taken apart from us, to know other life forms, to visit stunning landscapes of a richness and refinement that are far beyond the most vivid imagination. Astral traveling teaches us that in reality there is no «death», but only a «passing» to another realm, that after leaving the physical body forever, we go towards those spheres of the astral level to which we have great affinities. Sometimes we suffer for a being that was very dear to us and died. We mourn that being as if nothing is left of her besides some recollections stored in the depths of our memory. Nevertheless, the respective being continues to see us, to hear us, to understand us and to love us. She can often visit us, coming to our home from the astral dimension. But most often we cannot see her, as we also cannot see the entities or, in other words, the beings of light that come from the superior levels in order to guide us, to inspire us, to protect us and to support us in the difficult moments of our lives». (источник: http://www.natha.net)

Ways to Deal with Conversion Disorder   Conversion disorder plays on the worst fears of an individual, and dealing with it can become a very stressful time for the affected individual. Here are some ways in which one can deal with this disorder. Among one of the many common psychological disorders is the conversion disorder, classified under somatoform disorders. It is a condition where psychological stress manifests itself in the form of physical symptoms, but upon examination, no underlying causes of the physical symptoms are found. It has been found that in most cases, the trigger for a conversion disorder may be extreme stress, personal fears, or a traumatic incident in the past that is associated with various triggers. This disorder can be pretty harsh on one who suffers from it; not only because of the personal stress that it brings, but also because of the lack of belief that people have in those suffering from this disorder. It is a tendency to assume that the person may be doing this for the attention, or that there is no 'need' to react in such a serious way when the trigger according to them is trivial. However, only the person suffering from this disorder will understand what he goes through when exposed to a trigger. So the first way of dealing with this disorder is to seek the help and support of loved ones. If you know someone who suffers from this disorder, give her/him all the support possible, and ensure that they don't feel alone. While this is the starting step, there are several other ways of dealing with the problem. These have been discussed here. Getting professional help is the next step to coping with a conversion disorder. Counseling and psychotherapy sessions are extremely helpful in identifying the root cause of the problem and then providing help dealing with these stressors. These sessions are particularly helpful in preventing a relapse into the condition. Psychotherapy helps explain to a patient that the problem isn't as big as it seems, in terms of the trigger as well as the effect that it produces. Stress and anxiety are not only triggered by our deepest fears. Not being able to reach a particular place on time, the inability to cope up with relationships, and other such problems are also stressful. If an effort is made to avoid at least these stressors, the trouble caused by this disorder can be reduced to a certain extent. Any situation that will worsen an existing condition can wreak havoc on the mind and body. (источник: http://www.buzzle.com)

 

Псевдонаучную статью сложно отнести к научному стилю, скорее это художественный, т.к. в нем отсутствует точность, доказательность и объективность изложения. А лексические единицы сомнительного характера «An earthly being», «astral projection», «elevated frequency of vibration», «mysterious sublime worlds», «paradisiacal places» в силу своей экспрессивности и стилистической окрашенности не вписываются в рамки научного стиля. Научная же статья представляет собственно научный стиль. В ней представлено описание расстройства, которое изучалось на практике: «the conversion disorder, classified under somatoform disorders. It is a condition where psychological stress manifests itself in the form of physical symptoms, but upon examination, no underlying causes of the physical symptoms are found». В псевдонаучном тексте идет абсолютное игнорирование и искажение фактов, отказ от попыток сверить свою информацию с научными данными и использование в основе теории недостоверной информации. В итоге, в этой статье нарушается специфика научного знания, а именно: отсутствует универсальность (не сообщаются знания, истинные для всего человечества), преемственность (новые знания не соотносятся с уже известными фактами), критичность (отсутствие готовности поставить под сомнение и пересмотреть свои основополагающие результаты) и достоверность (нет проверки информации по определенным требованиям). Эта статья – неудачная попытка имитировать гуманитарное знание (излишнее усиление активности субъекта в познавательном процессе). Кроме того, нарушена конструктивность научной теории (невозможно проверить описываемые в статье явления), иначе говоря, нет возможности применить принцип верификации к данному материалу; отсутствует интерсубъектность (в статье представлено личное мнение автора, никак не коллектива ученых на основе фактической информации), а вследствие нет воспроизводимости (каждый, если конечно такое возможно, может получить свой, индивидуальный опыт, а никак не общий, схожий, единый).

Далее остановимся на терминологической системе парапсихологии.

Akashic Records - memories of all experiences since the beginning of time, believed by some mystical doctrines to be stored permanently in a spiritual substance (Akasha);

Astral Body - a term used by occultists, spiritualists and theosophists to refer to a supposed «double» of the person's physical body. The astral body is believed to be separable from the physical body during astral projection (out of body experience) and at death;

Clairvoyance - a general term that refers to the paranormal obtaining of information about an object or event. In modern usage, this does not necessarily refer to obtaining information visuall;

Evil Eye - alleged ability of some people to harm others by looking at them

Ghost - popular term for an experience believed to indicate the presence of the  spirit of a deceased person;

Medium - a person believed to act as an intermediary between discarnate entities and the living;

Past-Life Memories - mental images that are believed to be memories of previous lives;

Reincarnation - the belief that some aspect of a person's being (e.g., consciousness, personality, or soul) survives death and can be reborn in a new body at some future date. Reincarnation is often seen as a repeating cycle of death and rebirth in which future lives are influenced by past and present actions through the law of karma;

Siddhis - name given to paranormal powers associated with the practice of Yoga.

(источник: http://www.psychicscience.org)

 

Парапсихологические термины  не являются однозначными и стилистически  нейтральными, в них преобладает экспрессивность. Это терминоиды, т.е. специальные лексемы, используемые для называния недостаточно устоявшихся понятий. Дефиниции не отвечают научным требованиям: в науке нельзя определять неизвестное через неизвестное («Reincarnation - … the law of karma», «Akashic Records - … Akasha»). Более того, у понятий отсутствуют точные толкования: «a spiritual substance», «a supposed «double», «a repeating cycle of death and rebirth», «paranormal powers», «the presence of the  spirit of a deceased person». И, наконец, в научных дефинициях должна быть представлена фактическая информация, а не верования и предположения: «the belief», «are believed», «associated with». Нарушена структура научного знания, т.к. недостаточно эмпирических данных для теоретизации исследуемых явлений. Данные получены посредством непосредственного наблюдения, когда те или иные свойства, стороны объекта воспринимаются органами чувств человека. Но они проверены экспериментально лишь отчасти.

Говоря о парапсихологическом  дискурсе, важно указать, что в  нем нарушается объективность научного дискурса: не обнаруживается стремления к непредвзятости в суждениях.

 

2.4. Целительские псевдонауки

 

К данному типу принадлежит  гомеопатия.

Гомеопатия (Homeopathy) — вид альтернативной медицины, предполагающий использование сильно разведённых препаратов, которые, предположительно, вызывают у здоровых людей симптомы, подобные симптомам болезни пациента.

Концепция лечения по псевдонаучному принципу «подобное подобным» (лат. simula simulibis curant) противопоставляется  гомеопатами принципам аллопатии, на которых основана рациональная фармакотерапия. Основоположник и автор термина  — немецкий врач Христиан Фридрих Самуэл Ганеман (нем. Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann; 1755—1843).

Современная наука, в том числе  медицина, скептически относится  к гомеопатии, указывая на отсутствие научных основ этого метода лечения  болезней. Теоретическое обоснование гомеопатического принципа не соответствует научным представлениям о функционировании здорового и больного организма, безопасность и эффективность большинства гомеопатических методов лечения подвергалась недостаточной проверке, а осуществлённые клинические испытания гомеопатических препаратов не выявили различий между гомеопатическим лекарством и плацебо.

Для более детального ознакомления с гомеопатией, рассмотрим несколько  фрагментов статей.

«The beauty of the principle of similars is that it not only initiates a healing response, but it encourages a respect for the body's wisdom. Because symptoms represent the best efforts of our body in its defenses against infection or stress, it makes sense to utilize a medicine that helps and mimics this defense rather than that inhibits or suppresses it. The principle of similars may be one of nature's laws that, when used well, can be one of our most sophisticated healing strategies».

«It is initially startling to learn that medicines that have been diluted so many times have any effect. It is even more surprising to learn that homeopaths for the past 200 years have observed that the more a medicine has been potentized, i.e., diluted in this fashion, the longer it generally acts, the deeper it usually heals, and the fewer doses tend to be needed».

«The "law of similars," the basic principle of homeopathy, is even used in some conventional medical therapies, such as immunizations and allergy treatments. These treatments, however, are not pure homeopathy since homeopathic medicines are more individually prescribed, given in smaller doses, and used to treat sick people and to prevent disease».

(источник: http://www.homeopathic.com)

 

В последнем фрагменте обнаруживает себя попытка лжеученого  дескредитировать современную науку: «These treatments, however, are not pure homeopathy since homeopathic medicines are more individually prescribed, given in smaller doses, and used to treat sick people and to prevent disease». Экспрессивная лексика («The beauty of the principle...», «…the best efforts of our body», «…encourages a respect for the body's wisdom», «...most sophisticated healing strategies») направлена на определенный тип адресата. Тип адресата – человек, озабоченный состоянием своего здоровья (ипохондрик) или же больной человек. Человек, который по каким-то причинам не верит или разочаровался в традиционной медицине, поэтому он прибегает к услугам нетрадиционной. Фидеистический тип сознания формирует его картину мира. Человек готов пойти на все, чтобы вылечиться, потому что здоровье – один из ключевых элементов благополучия любого человека. Гомеопатия представляет собой псевдонаучную (лженаучную) форму вненаучного знания, т.к. поставленные эксперименты не подтвердили эффективность этой псевдонауки.

А теперь сравним псевдонаучный  текст по гомеопатии и научный  текст по фармакологии.

 

Псевдонаучная статья

Научная статья

Common Homeopathic Medicines By Dana Ullman MPH   If you wish to experiment with homeopathic medicines, here are medicines that are used for common ailments. These medicines should be taken in the 6th or 30th potency. Generally, if there is minor pain or discomfort, you should take the medicine three times a day, stopping once health has been restored. If there is more severe the pain, you can consider taking the medicine every one to three hours, decreasing the doses as symptoms are reduced. If you do not observe some improvement after 24 hours in an acute condition, the medicine is probably not the correct one. If symptoms persist, consider another medicine or seek professional homeopathic care. It is generally recommended that people treat themselves for non-threatening acute conditions only and obtain professional care for chronic or potential dangerous health conditions.  Dr. Stephen Cummings and Dana Ullman's Everybody's Guide to Homeopathic Medicines (Tarcher / Putnam, 2004) provides detailed protocols for helping to determine when symptoms are beyond self-care. Allium cepa (onion): Because it is known to cause tearing of the eyes and dripping of the nose, it is a frequent remedy for the common cold and hay fever, especially when there is a thin, watery, and burning nasal discharge that irritates the nostrils. Typically, the person's symptoms are worse in a warm room and are relieved in a cool room or in the open air. Arnica (mountain daisy): This is the #1 remedy in sports medicine and first aid. It is used for shock and trauma from injury. It also helps to reduce pain from injury and to speed the healing process. Whether you're into competitive sports or exercise regularly or if you simply don't like to feel the pain of an injury, Arnica is the place to start. Chamomilla (chamomille): Many parents owe their sleep to homeopathy, not because it helps them directly, but because it is so good for their infant. Chamomilla is the remedy for the irritable infant, especially from teething or colic. The infant cries incessantly, and nothing seems to provide any relief, except carrying them, and even then, the crying begins recurs as soon as the parent puts the child down. Hypericum (St. John's wort): This remedy is the first medicine to consider for injuries to the nerves or to parts of the body rich with them, including the fingers, toes, and back. Any injury with shooting pains should be given this remedy. (источник: http://www.homeopathic.com)

Pharmacotherapy for multidrug resistant tuberculosis   The current global concern in the treatment of tuberculosis (TB) is the emergence of resistance to the two most potent drugs namely, isoniazid and rifampicin. Emergence of multidrug resistance tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is now a health problem faced by most of the developing countries as well as developed countries across the globe. MDR-TB is a man-made disease that is caused by improper treatment, inadequate drug supplies, and poor patient supervision. HIV infection and AIDS have been implicated as important cause for this. The review of a published literature suggests that the most powerful predictor of treatment of MDR-TB is a history of treatment of TB. Although the treatment is efficacious, there are also a number of adverse effects caused by drugs used in the treatment of MDR-TB. Treatment regimens should contain at least four drugs with certain effectiveness. After confirmatory diagnosis of MDR-TB, patients can be treated with either standard MDR regimen or by individually tailored regimen which is based on the drug sensitivity test (DST). Any patient who does not respond to the treatment of Category first or third; any category second patient who remains smear positive at the end of fourth month treatment; contacts of MDR-TB cases will be identified as MDR-TB suspect. These will be tested by culture sensitivity and drug resistance tests. If a patient is confirmed as a non-MDR-TB case; continue Category second or Category first regimen but if MDR-TB is confirmed then Cat. fourth regimen should be started. Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP) uses Category fourth regimen as the standard regimen for treatment of MDR-TB. Category fourth regimen includes: six drugs-four bactericidal: Ofloxacin (Ofx) or Levofloxacin (Lfx); Kanamycin; ethionamide; pyrazinamide and two bacteriostatic drugs: Ethambutol; cycloserine (Cs) during 6-9 months of the intensive phase (IP) and four drugs: ofloxacin (levofloxacin), ethionamide, ethambutol, and cycloserine during the 18 months of the continuation phase (CP). PAS is included in the regimen as a substitute if any drug among ofloxacin (Ofx) or levofloxacin (Lfx); kanamycin; ethionamide; pyrazinamide is not tolerated or any drug among two bacteriostatic drugs is not tolerated. (источник: http://www.jpharmacol.com)

 

Псевдонаучная статья стремится  к научно-популярному стилю, а  научная является примером научно-справочного  стиля. Следующие предложения выдают, что не соблюдаются нормы научного стиля: «If you wish to experiment with homeopathic medicines...»; «If you do not observe some improvement after 24 hours in an acute condition, the medicine is probably not the correct one»; «This is the #1 remedy in sports medicine…»; «Because it is known to cause tearing of the eyes and dripping of the nose». Отсутствует фактическая информация, скорее представлены оценочные характеристики автора описываемых веществ. Нет ссылок на научные источники. Нарушается критерий обезличенности изложения. Автор ссылается на свою собственную книгу.  В научной статье присутствует точность и абстрактность изложения: «The review of a published literature...»; «After confirmatory diagnosis of MDR-TB...»; «… six drugs-four bactericidal: Ofloxacin (Ofx) or Levofloxacin (Lfx); Kanamycin; ethionamide; pyrazinamide»; «…regimen which is based on the drug sensitivity test»; « HIV infection and AIDS have been implicated as important cause for this». Представлены так же лексические единицы, обладающие функционально-стилевой окраской научного стиля (названия лекарств и препаратов). Помимо этого, присутствует насыщенность фактической информацией, объективность изложения, доказательность и точность изложения, что не обнаруживается в псевдонаучной статье. Очевидно, что для получения подобных сведений были использованы методы научного познания (наблюдение, эксперимент, анализ и синтез полученной информации).

Обратимся к терминологии этой целительской псевдонауки.

Antidote - a substance, or a remedy, that counteracts the effect of a homeopathic remedy. High temperatures are thought to antidote remedies. Mint is said to be an antidote of Natrum muriaticum. Many feel that coffee antidotes homeopathic remedies. When a person is reacting incorrectly to a homeopathic remedy, an antidote may be given to neutralize the effects;

Characteristic symptom - a symptom that is 'striking, strange, unusual, peculiar' in the case. Close attention is paid to characteristic symptoms as they must correspond to symptoms of the remedy if it is to cure. For example, burning pain better heat, or better lying on the painful side;

Constitution - the physical body and mental temperament that is expressive of the natural traits and predisposition of the individual;

Doctrine of Signatures - the concept that any organic substance carries within itself the likeness of some organ or part of the human economy, as a sign that this particular substance was applicable to disturbances of that organ;

One-sided diseases - diseases that seem less amenable to cure because of an apparent paucity of symptoms, one or two symptoms predominate, obscuring almost all the others;

Similia Similibus Currentur – «Likes are Cured by Likes». The homeopathic doctrine stating that any substance which is capable of producing morbid symptoms in the healthy will remove similar symptoms occurring as an expression of disease;

Vital force - the energy that maintains life in the individual.

(источник: http://www.wholehealthnow.com)

 

Как и у ранее рассматриваемых  псевдонаук в терминологическом поле гомеопатии не обнаруживается однозначность, стилистическая нейтральность и отсутствие экспрессии. Единицы образованы посредством терминологизации слов английского языка. Так же присутствуют заимствования из латинского языка, например «Similia Similibus Currentur». Стоит заметить, что это первая выборка терминов, в которой появляется термин на латинском языке. Это, своего рода, попытка приблизить гомеопатию к области медицинский знаний, повысить ее статус в научном отношении. Дефиниции не являются научными, т.к. у них отсутствуют точные толкования понятий: «the energy that maintains life in the individual»; «…the likeness of some organ»; « The homeopathic doctrine...». Представленные единицы являются терминоидами. Даже в самом первом случае у псведотермина «Antidote» дефиниция не соответствует требованиям, предъявляемым к научным терминам: «High temperatures are thought to antidote remedies. Mint is said to be an antidote of Natrum muriaticum. Many feel that coffee antidotes homeopathic remedies». Недостаток эмпирических знаний вынуждает автора прибегать к использованию таких выражений как «Many feel, to be thought, to be said», которые не подчеркивают однозначность в измышлениях.