Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

1. Linguostylistics. Its subject, objectives & the main concepts.

Stylistics, sometimes called Linguo–stylistics is a branch of linguistics. It has now been more or less definitely outlined. It deals mainly with 2 interdependent tasks: a) the investigation of the inventory of special language media which by their ontological features secure the desirable effect of the utterance and b) certain types of texts (discourse) which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication.

Style is the dress of thought. Style is proper words in proper places (Swift). “Stylos” initially was a pen. We can speak of style of a newspaper, etiquette. We can choose styles. The concept of choice is the center of stylistic study. Chatman claimed that style is a product of individual choice & patterns of choices among linguistic possibilities. Style can be seen as the conscious\unconscious selection of a set of linguistic features from all the possibilities of lang. 1 & the same idea can be represented in diff words.

In 1971 Galperin offered his definition, wh is considered to be classical: Style is a system of interrelated lang. means which serves a definite aim in communication. By interrelated lang. means are meant – phonetic(proper intonation & s-nds), lexical(the choice of w-s), syntactical(special constructions).

Professor Skrebnev’s definition: Style is what differentiates a group of homogeneous texts (an individual text) from other groups\texts. Thus style can be roughly defined as the peculiarity, the set of specific features of a text type or a specific text.

Stylistics – a branch of linguistics which studies principals & effect of choice & usage of diff lang elements in rendering thought & emotion under diff conditions of communication.

Main problems of Stylistics (Galperin): 1)synonymous ways of rendering 1 & the same idea; 2)the aesthetic function of the lang; imaginative writings is opposed to informative writings; 3)the expressive colouring of the lang; 4)EM & SD; 5)the shifting of the lang into separate systems\varieties of lang\sublang; 6)functional styles of the lang; 7)individual style of the author.

Branches of Stylistics: 1. Functional stylistics (Galperin – scientific FS; belles – letters FS; publicistic FS; scientific prose FS; newspaper FS); 2. Litterary Stylistics (near to fiction/ the author’s outlook, its obj-belles-letters st.); 3. Linguostylistics (EM & SD – objects; studies stylistic usage of lang resources); 4. Comparative Stylistics (is connected w\contrastive study of more than 1 lang connected with the T of translation); 5. Decoding Stylistics (can be explained within the T of communicative act: the sender/speaker/adresserà messageà the recipient/listener/ addressee. The author who incodes the message – incoder - > the writer, the poet. The decoder – the audience. In the middle – text. The aim is to decode this message, this Text. We need info about the author – the epoch, political outlook. In order to understand the message we have to understand the lang. So decoding stylistics unites literary & linguistic analysis & analyses them.); 6. Practical Stylistics (those ppl who need lang professionallyà publishers, writes, journalists) & 7. Text Stylistics (coincides with FS-cs).

What we call individual style is a unique combination of lang units, EM & SDs peculiar to a given writer, which make that writer's works or even utterances easily recognizable. Hence, individual style may be likened to a proper name. It has nominal character. The analogy is, of course, conventional, but it helps to underst the uniqueness of the writer's idiosyncrasy. Individual style is based on a thorough knowledge of the contemporary language and also of earlier periods in its development.

EM have many common with stylistic devices. EM are those forms which have a potential to make the utterance expressive. They exist on all levels of the lang – lexical, phonetical, graphical, morphological, syntactical. Stress, pitch are expressive means. They can be used as a logical or emotional intensification.

SD is an intentional intensification of sound, typical, structural or semantic property of a lang unit. All SD belong to EM, coz they attract attention. But not all EM belong to SD. A SD is a kind of mode & they belong to lang in action. EM are more predictable when SD are not predictable or slightly predictable in the text. 

2. Functional Stylistics.

A functional style of lang is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in commumication. A functional style is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message.

What we here call functional styles are also called registers or discourses.

In the English literary standard we distinguish the following major functional styles: 1)lang of belles-lettres; 2)lang of publicistic literature; 3)lang of newspapers; 4)lang of scientific prose; 5)lang of official  documents.

Functional styles are the product of the development of the written variety of language. Each FS may be characterized by a N of distinctive features, leading or subordinate, constant or changing, obligatory or optional. Most of the FSs, however, are perceived as independent wholes due to a peculiar combination and interrelation of features common to all (esp. when taking into account syntactical arrangement) with the leading ones of each FS. Each FS is subdivided into a N of substyles.

1)The belles-lettres FS: a) poetry; b) emotive prose; c) drama.

2)The publicistic FS: a) oratory; b) essays; c) articles.

3)The newspaper FS: a) brief news items and communiques; b) newspaper headings; c) notices and advertisements; d) editorials.

4)The scientific prose FS: a) humanitarian sciences; b) exact sciences; c) popular scientific prose.

5)The official dосuтепt FS: a) diplomatic doc; b) business doc; c) legal doc; d) military doc. 

3. Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary.

The word-stock of the English language as being divided into 3 main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a N of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be called its aspect.

The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this that makes the layer more or less stable.

The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable, fleeting.

The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. It is this that makes the layer the most stable of all.

The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the Eng voc. They have no local or dialectal character.

The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not unfrequently limited to a definite language 
community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.

The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: 1)common literary; 2)terms and learned words; 3)poetic words; 4)archaic words; 5)barbarisms and foreign words; 6)literary coinages including nonce-words.

The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1)common colloquial words; 2)slang; 3)jargonisms; 4)professional  words; 
5)dialectal words; 6)vulgar words; 7)colloquial coinages.

The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary.

# kid(coll) – child(neutral) – infant(literary), get out(coll) - go away(neutr) – retire(liter), go on(coll) – continue(neutr) – proceed(liter) 

5. Stylistically coloured words: the formal layer

1. term, 2 poetical words, 3 archaic words, 4 Barbarisms and Foreignisms, 5 nonce-words

1)Terms are mostly and predominantly used in special works dealing w\the notions of some branch of science. Therefore it may be said that they belong to the style of language of science. The function of terms, if encountered in other styles, is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some reference to the occupation of a character whose language would

naturally contain special words and expressions (Legal terminology – execution, penalty, lawsuit; technologies – solid steel, gas turbine engine, honeycomb steel)

2)Poetical Words form a rather insignificant layer of the special literary voc. They are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words which aim at producing an elevated effect. They have a marked tendency to detach themselves from the common literary word-stock and gradually assume the quality of terms denoting certain definite notions and calling forth poetic diction. Poetic words and expressions are called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry. This may be said to be the main function

of poetic words.

3)Obso`lescent -The beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent=> they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. To this category first of all belong morphological forms belonging to the earlier stages in the development of the language. In the English language these are the pronouns thou and its forms thee, thy and thine; the corresponding verbal ending –est and the verb-forms art, wilt (thou makest, thou wilt); the ending -(e)th instead of -(e)s (he maketh) and the pronoun ye.

`Obsоlete -The 2^nd group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English-speaking community: #methinks ( = it seems to me); nay ( = no).

Archaic proper -The 3^rd group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable, #troth ( = faith); a losel ( = a worthless,  lazy fellow). Archaic words are primarily and predominantly used in the creation of a realistic background to historical novels. The main function of archaisms, finds diff interpretation in diff novels by diff writers.

4)Barbarisms and Foreignisms – Barbarisms – words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue. Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language. They are, as it were, part and parcel of the English word-stock, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary voc #chic(= stylish); bon mot (= a clever witty saying); en passant(= in passing);ad infinitum (= to infinity). Barbarisms are generally given in the body of the dictionary. (Mon pauvre ami – my poor friend; Pate en croute – a paste in crust)

Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries, except in a kind of addenda which gives the meanings of the foreign words most frequently used in literary English.

5)Literary Coinages (Including Nonce-Words) There is a term in linguistics which by its very nature is ambiguous and that is the term neologism. In dictionaries it is generally defined as 'a new word or a new meaning for an established word.' #televiewer-телезритель, atomic pile-атомный реактор, half-life-период полураспада, tracer atom-меченый атом, to dieselize-установить дизель, оборудовать дизелем. 

4. Stylistically coloured words: the informal layer

Colloquial words, on the contrary, mark the message as informal, non-official, conversational. Apart from general colloquial words, widely used by all speakers of the language in their everyday communication (e.g. "dad", "kid", "crony", "fan", "to pop", "folks"), such special subgroups may be mentioned:

1. Slang forms the biggest one. Slang words, used by most speakers in very informal communication, are highly emotive and expressive and as such, lose their originality rather fast and are replaced by newer formations. This tendency to synonymic expansion results in long chains of synonyms of various degrees of expressiveness, denoting one and the same concept. So, the idea of a "pretty girl" is worded by more than one hundred ways in slang.

In only one novel by S. Lewis there are close to a dozen synonyms used by Babbitt, the central character, in reference to a girl: "cookie", "tomato", "Jane", "sugar", "bird", "cutie", etc.

The substandard status of slang words and phrases, through universal usage, can be raised to the standard colloquial: "pal", "chum," "crony" for "friend"; "heavies", "woolies" for "thick panties"; "booze" for "liquor"; "dough" for "money"; "how's tricks" for "how's life"; "beat it" for "go away" and many many more - are examples of such a transition.

2. Jargonisms stand close to slang, also being substandard, expressive eand emotive, but, unlike slang they are used by limited groups of people,united either professionally (in this case we deal with professional Jargonisms, or professionalisms), or socially (here we deal withjargonisms proper). In distinction from slang, Jargonisms of both types cover a narrow semantic field: in the first case it is that, connected with the technical side of some profession. So, in oil industry, e.g., for the terminological "driller" (буровщик) there exist "borer", "digger","wrencher", "hogger", "brake weight"; for "pipeliner" (трубопроводчик)- "swabber", "bender", "cat", "old cat", "collar-pecker", "hammerman";for "geologist" - "smeller", "pebble pup", "rock hound", "witcher", etc. From all the examples at least two points are evident: professionalisms are formed according to the existing word-building patterns or present existing words in new meanings, and, covering the field of special professional knowledge, which is semantically limited, they offer a vast variety of synonymic choices for naming one and the same professional item. Jargonisms proper are characterized by similar linguistic features, but differ in function and sphere of application. They originated from the thieves' jargon (l'argo, cant) and served to conceal the actual significance of the utterance from the uninitiated. Their major function thus was to be cryptic, secretive. This is why among them there are cases of conscious deformation of the existing words. The so-called back jargon (or back slang) can serve as an example: in their effort to conceal the machinations of dishonest card-playing, gamblers used numerals in their reversed form: "ano" for "one", "owt" for "two", "erth" for "three".

Anglo-American tradition, starting with E. Partridge, a famous English lexicographer, does not differentiate between slang and Jargonisms regarding these groups as one extensive stratum of words divided into general slang, used by all, or most, speakers and special slang, limited by the professional or social standing of the speaker. This debate appears to concentrate more on terminology than on essence. Indeed slang (general slang) and jargonisms (special slang) have much in common: are emotive, expressive, unstable, fluctuating, tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groups and limited to a highly informal, substandard communication. So it seems appropriate to use the indicated terms as synonyms.

3. Vulgarisms are coarse words with a strong emotive meaning, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation. History of vulgarisms reflects the history of social ethics. So, in Shakespearian times people were much more linguistically frank and disphemistic in their communication than in the age of Enligtenment or the Victorian era, famous for its prudish and reserved manners. Nowadays words which were labelled vulgar in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are considered such no more. In fact, at present we are faced with the reverse of the problem: there are practically no words banned from use by the modern permissive society. Such intensifiers as "bloody", "damned", "cursed", "hell of", formerly deleted from literature and not allowed in conversation, are not only welcomed in both written and oral speech, but, due to constant repetition, have lost much of their emotive impact and substandard quality. One of the best-known American editors and critics Maxwell Perkins, working with the serialized 1929 magazine edition of Hemingway's novel A Farewell to Arms found that the publishers deleted close to a dozen words which they considered vulgar for the publication. Preparing the hard-cover edition Perkins allowed half of them back ("son of a bitch", "whore", "whorehound," etc.). Starting from the late fifties no publishing house objected to any coarse or obscene expressions. Consequently, in contemporary West European and American prose all words, formerly considered vulgar for public use (including the four-letter words), are accepted by the existing moral and ethical standards of society and censorship.

4. Dialectal words are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong. In Great Britain four major dialects are distinguished: Lowland Scotch, Northern, Midland (Central) and Southern. In the USA three major dialectal varieties are distinguished: New England, Southern and Midwestern (Central, Midland). These classifications do not include many minor local variations Dialects markedly differ on the phonemic level: one and the same phoneme is differently pronounced in each of them. They differ also on the lexical level, having their own names for locally existing phenomena and also supplying locally circulating synonyms for the words, accepted by the language in general. Some of them have entered the general vocabulary and lost their dialectal status ("lad", "pet", "squash", "plaid").

Each of the above-mentioned four groups justifies its label of special colloquial words as each one, due to varying reasons, has application limited to a certain group of people or to certain communicative situations. 
 

6. The denotative and connotative aspects of meaning.

The linguistic unit of major significance is the word, which'names, qualifies and evaluates the micro-and marcrocosm of the surrounding world. The most essential feature of a word is that it expresses the concept of a thing, process, phenomenon, naming (denoting) them. Concept is a logical category, its linguistic counterpart is meaning. Meaning, (L. Vygotsky) is the unity of generalization, communication and thinking. An entity of extreme complexity, the meaning of a word is liable to historical changes, which are responsible for the formation of an expanded semantic structure of a word. This structure is constituted of various types of lexical meanings, the major one being denotational, which informs of the subject of communication; and also including connotational, which informs about the participants and conditions of communication. The list and specifications of connotational meanings include such entries as pragmatic (directed at the perlocutionary effect of utterance), associative (connected, through individual psychological or linguistic associations, with related and nonrelated notions), ideological, or conceptual (revealing political, social, ideological preferences of the user), evaluative (stating the value of the indicated notion), emotive (revealing the emotional layer of cognition and perception), expressive (aiming at creating the image of the object in question), stylistic (indicating "the register", or the situation of the communication). The meanings are classified as connotational because they supply additional information, they are observed not all at once and not in all words either. Some of them are more important for the act of communication than the others. All words possessing an emotive meaning are also evaluative (e.g. "rascal", "ducky"), here also intellectual evaiuation (e.g. "good", "bad"). All emotive words (or practically all, for that matter) are also expressive. The number, importance and the overlapping character of connotational meanings incorporated into the semantic structure of a word, are brought forth by the context. Each context specify the existing semantic (both denotational and connotational) possibilities of a word, & also is capable of adding new ones. All contextual meanings of a word can never be exhausted or comprehensively enumerated. Compare the following cases of contextual use of the verb "to pop" in Stan Barstow's novel "Ask Me Tomorrow":[1] In the semantic actualization of a word the context plays a dual role: on one hand, it cuts off all meanings irrelevant for the given communicative situation. On the other, it foregrounds one of the meaningful options of a word, focusing the communicators' attention on one of the denotational or connonational components of its semantic structure. The significance of the context is comparatively small in the field of stylistic connotations, because the word is labelled stylistically before it enters some context, i.e. in the dictionary: recollect the well-known contractions -vulg., arch., si., etc., which make an indispensable part of a dictionary entry. So there is sense to start the survey of connotational meanings with the stylistic differentiation of the vocabulary.