7. The notions of evaluation, emotiveness, expressiveness, stylistic reference.

Scheme of word meaning structure: 
Word meaning  - (1)grammatical is referred to a certain grammatical form & (2)lexical – refers to the phenomenon objective to realityà (denotative is linked to nominal, logical m-g, literal meaning in the dictionary – a fixed meaning & connotative- what the words suggests, imlies, what it brings to mind, a part of its dennotation)à [emotive, expressive, stylistic, evaluative] 
Denotative component informs of the thing. It denotes the basic info, conveyed from the speaker to the listener, it may be called the subject matter of communication. The denotative component establishes correlation b-n the name & the object, phenomenon, process or thought which is denoted by the word. 
Connotational component informs about the participant’s attitude towards the thought about it; their emotional state & conditions of communication. (for example, home = privacy, security). Connotative meaning consists of 4 components: 
- Evaluative states the value of the notion (positive/negative connotation). Can be expressed through synonymous words (snake – a bad person); 
- Emotive signals emotions (+ interjections – have no denotative meaning; For ex, short - lived, feeling – >long-lived); 
- Expressive is aimed at intensification of denotative meaning. Synonyms may indicate our attitude (to adore = to love; big = huge); 
- Stylistic indicates the register or the situation of communication (to what functional Style is belong to). 
Interjections are emotionally marked.  
Neutrality is stylistic connotation, it is also indication of sphere of the usage of the word => all the words are stylistically marked even if they have a zero stylistic connotation. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

8 Phonetic EM & SDs

S-nds have diff effects on us, writers use these principles in their works. The aim os s-nds: 1)they can avoke strong emotional responses – musicality in w-s; 2)they produce a cert acoustic effect; 3)they might stress sth imp. S-nds have no m-g, they possess a kind of expressive m-g, they have a stylistic value. The role of s-nds is subordinate – they support the lexical m-g

RHYME –  repetition of similar\identical terminal s-nd combinations of w-s.

1)full rhyme –vowel s-nd & the following consonant s-nds in a stressed syllable are identical.

2)incomplete: a) vowel rhyme – vowels of the syllables in corresponding w-s are identical, consonants – diff.

                       b) consonant rhyme –consonants are identical, vowels are diff.

3)compound\broken rhyme – 1 word rhymes w\a combination of w-s, or 2 or even 3 w-s rhyme w\a corresponding 2\3 w-s.

4)eye-rhyme – letters, not s-nds are identical.

(1)couplets (aa) – the last w-s of 2 successive lines are rhymed

(2)triple rhyme (aaa); (3)cross rhyme (abab); (4)framing\ring rhyme (abba)

5)internal rhyme – the rhyming w-s are placed within the line

RHYTHM –  a regular alternation of similar \equal units of speech. In poetry it’s created by the measured alteration of stressed & unstressed syllables (parallel constrt)

ALLITERATION – repetition of initial consonants in 2\more w-s in close succession, can be observed in titles, set-expressions.

ASSONANCE –  repetition of the same vowel s-nds in a sequence of nearby w-s containing diff consonants. It creates “vowel rhyme”.

ONOMATOPOEIA – imitation of s-nds produced in nature by things, animals, ppl =>demonsrates by phonetic means the acoustic pict of the reality. Can be direct(cries of beasts, birds) & indirect(all verbs of process & nouns). A message containing an onomatopoeic w isnt limited to transmitting the logical info only, but also supplies the vivid portrayal of the situation described.

9 Graphical EM & SDs

are used by writers 4 diff purposes. Writers refer to grafons to reproduce phonetic peculiarities of speech

GRAPHON –  intentional violation of spelling of a w used to reflect its authentic pronunciation.

- phonetic substitution – 1 phomene is substituted.

- elision – omission of a final\central s-nd in pronuncoation (informal, true to life, plausable, memorable).

- epenthesis – insertion of a s-nd.

- prothesis – additional phoneme\syllable at the beg. of a w.

- simplified spelling

There are 1)social & 2)occasional graphons. (1) are spread among low classes(4 dropping), young ppl(‘cause), social groups, afroamericans(lawd, gawd). (2) are made by foreigners acc to ignorance(instinct – instinc, extract – exrot), I-net constructions (SUL8=see u later, 2day, BTW=by the way, 2moro), speech of a drunk p.

+Italics, Capitalization, hyphenation, multiplication of a grapheme.

                       10. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices.

The stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two objects is called a metaphor. The term 'metaphor', as the etymology of the word reveals, means transference of some quality from one object to another. A metaphor_becomes_a_stylistic device when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties. (1) Metоnуту is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent.(2) Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other.(3) Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations tо two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the one hand, literal, and, on the other, transerred (4) The pun is another stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase.(5) Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of human emotions.(6) The epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence used to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently imposing on mm, some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties.(7) O x у’ moron is a combination  of two words (mostly an adjective and a  noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of  the two clash, being opposite in sense.(8) The interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a word is called antопоmasia.(9) The intensification of some one feature of the concept in question is realized in a device called s i m i l e.(10) Periphrasis is a device which, according to Webster's dictionary, denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. It is also called  circumlocution due to the round-about or indirect way used to name a familiar object or phenomenon.(11) Euphemism, as is known, is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.(12) Hyperbole.can be defined as a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unlike periphrasis) to the object or phenomenon. In its extreme form this exaggeration is carried to an illogical degree, sometimes ad absurdum.(13) А  с l i с h e is generally defined as an expression that has become hackneyed and trite.(14) An epigram is a stylistic device akin to a proverb, the only difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are the coinage of the people.(15) A  quоtation is a repetition of a phrase or statement_from a book, speech and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter in hand.(16) An allиsion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing.(17)

11 Syntactical EM & SDs

The effect depends on 1)the arrangement of the members(repetition, invertion, detached constr, parenthesis); 2)the completeness of the structure(ellipsis, break-in-the-narr); 3)the type of connection of the parts(poly-, asyndeton)

REPETITION – a reccurance of the same w-s\word combinations\phrase for 2 or more times. Types:

1)anaphora – is the repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of clauses, sentences, periods, or in poetry at the beginning of lines, stanzas

2)epiphora – opposite to anaphora, identifies the final words.

3)framing – repetition of the same word at the begining & at the end of the s-ce\paragraph.

4)anadiplosis\catch repetition – the final word of s-ce reccur at the begining of the next s-ce\paragraph. Concluding part serves as a atarting point of the next.

PARALLELISM – repetition of identical syntactical construction in close connection.

CHIASMUS\crossing – reserved parallelism, when 2 syntactic constructions are parallel by the members change places, syntactical positions. They’re based on calambur.

INVERSION –  rearrangement of a standart word order.

DETACHED CONSTRUCTION – based on singling out the secondary members of the s-ce w’the help of punctuation\intonation/ the word order isnt violated, but secindary members obtail their stress & intonation as they’re detached fron the rest of the s-ce by commas, dashes.

PARENTHESIS – when excluded the main message of the s-ce is clear (пояснит. фраза)

ELLIPSIS –  a deliberate omission of at least 1 member of the s-ce, incomplete s-ces. Typical of live communication, used in modern prose & dialogues, informality.

BREAK-IN-THE-NARRATIVE\aposiopesis – defined for a stopping for ritorical effect, break in narration. Dialogues, dashes & dots.

POLYSYNDETON – the repeated use of conjunctions.

ASYNDETON –  the deliberate omission of conjunctions.

They both have strong rythmic impact.

12. Text

     One of the features of texts is its permanence (неизменность). Texts possess permanence because they belong to the written language. Texts should also possess the quality of integrity (целостность). It presupposes the subordination (подчинение) of certain parts to one particular part which reveals (раскрывает) the main idea and the intention of the author. Texts consist of supra-phrasal units. This term is used to denote a larger unit than a sentence. It generally comprises a number of sentences interdependent (взаимозависимые) structurally (usually by means of pronouns, connectives, tense-forms) and semantically (one definite thought is dealt with). These units are also characterized by the fact that it can be extracted from the context without losing its relative semantic independence. In a text these units are not equal in their significance: some of them have reference to the main idea, others only back up the intention of the author. It follows then that supra-phrasal units can be classified as predicative and relative. The text takes away independence from sentences they have when isolated. There can be two kinds of information in a text. Content-conceptual information gives the reader notions, ideas, concepts, facts (real or imaginary), descriptions, events, proceedings, etc. But the information of that type allows various interpretations, which can be in opposition. The reader also needs special stylistic inventory to decode this information. Content-factual information is the information of newspaper style, official documents, scientific papers, etc. The concepts in texts which provide the information of that type are clearly formulated and the reader does not need to interpret them stylistically. The stylistic analysis includes several procedures. The first procedure is to find out what kind of text it is. It cam be called the taxonomic stage of analysis. Taxonomy is the science of classification, of principles of classification. But sometimes it is not enough and we have to specify the kind of the text. For example, an official document, we should say if it is a pact, or a contract, or a memorandum, etc. If it is a belles-letters text, whether it is a poem, a story, a novel, etc. The second procedure is the content-grasping stage. It means an approximate (приблизительный) understanding of what the text is about. The third procedure is the semantic procedure. It is the close observation of the meanings of separate words, word combinations, sentences, and supra-phrasal units. The fourth procedure can be called the stylistic stage. Find out what additional information may be given by the author’s use of various stylistic devices and also by placing the sentences next to each other within the supra-phrasal units. The fifth procedure is the functional stage. It reminds the content-grasping stage. Here we have to get the conceptual information given by the text  we analyze using all the information which we got at the previous stages. It is the final procedure which let us get a deeper and complete understanding of the text. 

13. Stylistics of decoding and text interpretation.

Functional stylistics, deals with sets, "paradigms" of language units of all levels of language hierarchy serving to accommodate the needs of certain typified communicative situations. These paradigms are known as functional styles of the language. Functional styles: 1. official style, represented in all kinds of official documents and papers; 2. scientific style, found in articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific and academic publications; 3. publicist style, covering such genres as essay, feature article, most writings of "new journalism", public speeches, etc.; 4. newspaper style, observed in the majority of information materials printed in newspapers; 5. belles-lettres style, embracing numerous and versatile genres of imaginative writing. All the above-mentioned styles are singled out within the literary type of the language. Their functioning is characterized by the intentional approach of the speaker towards the choice of language means suitable for a particular communicative situation and the official, formal, preplanned nature of the latter. Functional stylistics is the most all-embracing trend in style study, and such specified stylistics as the scientific prose study, or newspaper style study, or the like, may be considered elaborations of certain fields of functional stylistics.A special place here is occupied by the study of creative writing -the belles-lettres style, because in it, above all, we deal with stylistic use of language resources, i.e. with such a handling of language elements that enables them to carry not only the basic, logical, but also additional information of various types. In terms of information theory the author's stylistics may be named the stylistics of the encoder: the language being viewed as the code to shape the information into the message, and the supplier of the information, respectively, as the encoder. The addressee in this case plays the part of the decoder of the information contained in the message; and the problems connected with adequate reception of the message without any informational losses or deformations, are the concern of decoding stylistics. And, finally, the stylistics, proceeding from the norms of language usage at a given period and teaching these norms to language speakers, (editors, publishers, writers, journalists, teachers, etc.) is called practical stylistics. Thus, depending on the approach and the final aim there can be observed several trends in style study. Common to all of them is the necessity to learn what the language can offer to serve the innumerable communicative tasks and purposes of language users; how various elements of the language participate in storing and transferring information; which of them carries which type of information, etc. 

14. The belles-lettres functional style.

The belles-lettres style is a generic term for three substyles in which the main principles and the most general properties of the style are materialized. These three substyles are: 1. The language of poetry, or simply verse. 2. Emotive prose, or the language of fiction. 3. The language of the drama. Each of these substyles has certain common features, typical of the general belles-lettres style, which make up the foundation of the style, by which the particular style is made recognizable and can therefore be singled out. The common features of the substyles may be summed up as follows. First of all comes the common function which may broadly be called "aesthetico-cognitive". This is a double function which aims at the cognitive process, which secures the gradual unfolding of the idea to the reader and at the same time calls forth a feeling of pleasure, a pleasure which is derived from the form in which the content is wrought. Since the belles-lettres style has a cognitive function as well as an aesthetic one, it follows that it has something in common with scientific style, which will be discussed in detail later, but which is here mentioned for the sake of comparison. The purpose of the belles-lettres style is to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer. This is the cognitive function of the belles-lettres style. The belles-lettres style rests on certain indispensable linguistic features which are: 1) Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices. 2) The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment. 3) A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author's personal evaluation of thing or phenomena. 4) A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy. 5) The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (in plays) or a lesser one (in emotive prose) or a slight degree, if any (in poems). The belles-lettres style is individual in essence. This is one of its most distinctive properties. Individuality in selecting language means (including stylistic devices), extremely apparent in poetic style 

15. The publicistic functional style

It falls into 3 varieties, each having its own distinctive features. A spoken variety – oratorical substyle. The development of radio and tv has brought into being another new spoken variety, namely, the radio and TV commentary. The other two substyles are the essay (moral, philosophical, literary) and journalistic articles (political, social, economic) in newspapers, journals and magazines. Book reviews in journals, newspapers and magazines and also pamphlets are generally included among essays.

Purpose of communication: to produce a constant and deep influence on public opinion; to convince the reader of the listener that the speaker’s point of view is correct and to make him to accept this point of view through logical argumentation and emotional appeal.

Stylistic peculiarities. Lexical: 1. emotionally coloured words 2. the use of clichés 3. word and root repetition 4. antithesis. 5. terminological variety 6. abbreviations and acronyms. 7. In headlines – frequent use of pun, violated phraseology, vivid stylistic devices.

Syntactical: Frequent use of rhetorical questions and interrogatives in oratory speech.

In headlines: use of impersonal s-s, elliptical constructions, interrogative s-s, infinitive complexes and attributive groups. In news items and articles: news items comprise one or two s-s. Absence of complex coordination with chain of subordinate clauses and a number of conjunctions. Absence of exclamatory s-s, break-in-the narrative. Other expressively charged constructions. Articles demonstrate more syntactical organization and logical arrangement of s-s.

1. parallel constructions 2. examples, quotations, allusions 3. signal of sequence 4. a wide range of syntactic patterns.

Compositional features: Text arrangement is marked by precision, logic and expressive power. Carefully selected vocabulary. Variety of topics. Wide use of quotations, direct speech and represented speech. Use of parallel constructions throughout the text. In headlines – use of devices to arrest attention (rhyme, pun, puzzle, high degree of comparison, graphical means). Careful subdivision into paragraphs, clearly defined position of the sections of article – the most important info is carried in the opening paragraph, often in the first s-ce. 

16. The style of official documents.

The style of official documents is sometimes called “officialese”As has already been pointed out, this FS is not homogeneous and is represented by the following substyles: 1) the   language of  business  documents, 2) the language of legal  documents, 3) that of diplomacy, 4) that of military documents. Like other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim and, accordingly, has its own system  of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking. These parties may be: the state and the citizen, or citizen and citizen; a society and its members (statute or ordinance); two or more enterprises or bodies (business correspondence or contracts); two or more governments (pacts, treaties); a person in authority and a subordinate (orders, regulations, instructions, authoritative directives); a board or presidium and an assembly or general meeting (procedures acts, minutes), etc. The aim of communication in this style of language is to reach agree ment between two contracting parties.  This most general function of the style of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style. The most striking, though not the most essential feature, is a special system of  cliches, terms and set expressions by which each substyle can easily be recognized,[1] In fact, each of the subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and expressions which differ  from the corresponding terms. phrases and expressions of other variants of this style. Besides the special nomenclature characteristic of each variety of the style, there is a feature common to all  these varieties—the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols  and   contractions,[2] This characteristic feature was used by Dickens in his "Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club;[3] Abbreviations are particularly abundant in_ military documents. Here they are used as conventional symbols & signs of the military code, which is supposed to be known only to the initiated. 4] Another feature of the style is the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning. There is no room for contextual meanings or for any kind of simultaneous realization of two meanings. In military documents sometimes metaphorical names are given to mountains, rivers, hills or villages, but these metaphors are perceived as code signs and have no aesthetic value, as in:[5] As in all other functional styles, the distinctive properties appear as a system. Perhaps the most noticeable of all syntactical features are the compositional patterns of the variants of this style.  Thus, business letters have a definite compositional pattern, namely, the heading giving the address of the writer, the date, the name of the addressee and his address.6] Almost every official document has its own compositional design.