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Шпаргалка лексикология английского языка. Язык: английский. ИИЯ МАИ
N 1 1. Subject of lexicology Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, it is study of words. The term is composed of two Greek morphemes: logos – learning, Lexus – word, phrase. Lexicology studies words and word combination. LG is a branch of linguistics and has its own aims and methods of scientific research. Its basic task is to study and descript systematically the vocabulary in respect to (что касается) its origin, development and current use. LG is concerned with words, variable workgroups, phrasiological units and with morphemes. Modern English LG investigates (исследовать) the problems of word structure and word formation (образование) in modern English, the semantic structure of English words, the classification of vocabulary units, the laws and the development of the vocabulary. It also studies the source and the growth of the EV and the changes. Branches: The General LG – the general study of words and vocabulary. Linguistic phenomena and properties common to all languages are generally referred as language universals. The Special LG – is the LG of a particular language. That’s the study of and description of its vocabulary and vocabulary units. The Historical LG – the evolution of any vocabulary. It discusses the origin of various words, their change and development, investigates linguistics and extra linguistics forces. The object - its single elements, modifying their structure, meaning and usage. The Contrastive and Comparative LG - their aims are to study the correlation between the vocabularies of 2 or more languages and find out the correspondences between the vocabulary units. The descriptive LG – deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development. LG also studies all kinds of semantic grouping and semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, homonymy, semantic fields. Meaning relations as a whole are dealed within semantics – the Study of meaning. There are two principal approaches (подход) in linguistic science to the study of language material: The synchronic (historical). Concerned with the study and description of a language system at a certain time. The diachronic. Deals with the changes and the development of the vocabulary on the course of time. The two approaches are interconnected and interdependent. The synchronic state of a language is the result of a long process of linguistic evolution of its historical development. Eg: to bag – bagger (closely connected with the history, bagger is borrowed from Old French).
2. Main problems of lexicography in Modern English Modern English Lexicology aims at giving a systematic description of the word-stock of Modern English. Words, their component parts — morphemes — and various types of word-groups, are subjected to structural and semantic analysis primarily from the synchronic angle. In other words, Modern English Lexicology investigates the problems of word-structure and word-formation in Modern English, the semantic structure of English words, the main principles underlying the classification of vocabulary units into various groupings the laws governing the replenishment of the vocabulary with new vocabulary units. It also studies the relations existing between various lexical layers of the English vocabulary and the specific laws and regulations that govern its development at the present time. The source and growth of the English vocabulary, the changes it has undergone in its history are also dwelt upon, as the diachronic approach revealing the vocabulary in the making cannot but contribute to the understanding of its workings at the present time. It has now become a tradition to include in a Course of Lexicology a short section dealing with Lexicography, the science and art of dictionary-compiling, because Lexicography is a practical application of Lexicology so that the dictionary-maker is inevitably guided in his work by the principles laid down by the lexicologist as a result of his investigations. It is common knowledge that in his investigation the lexicologist makes use of various methods. An acquaintance with these methods is an indispensable part of a course of lexicology. Modern English Lexicology as a subject of study forms part of the Theoretical Course of Modern English and as such is inseparable from its other component parts, i.e. Grammar, Phonetics, Stylistics, on the one hand, and the Course of History of the English Language, on the other. The language learner will find the Course of Modern English Lexicology of great practical importance. He will obtain much valuable information concerning the English wordstock and the laws and regulations governing the formation and usage of English words and word-groups. Besides, the Course is aimed both at summarising the practical material already familiar to the students from foreign language classes and at helping the students to develop the skills and habits of generalising the linguistic phenomena observed. The knowledge the students gain from the Course of Modern English Lexicology will guide them in all their dealings with the English word-stock and help them apply this information to the solution of practical problems that may face them in class-room teaching. Teachers should always remember that practical command alone does not qualify a person to teach a language. • This textbook treats the following basic problems: 1. Semasiology and semantic classifications of words; 2. Word-groups and phraseological units; 3. Word-structure; 4. Word-formation; 5. Etymological survey of the English word-stock; 6. Various aspects of vocabulary units and replenishment of Modern English word-stock; 7. Variants and dialects of Modern English; 8. Fundamentals of English Lexicography; 9. Methods and Procedures of Lexicological Analysis. All sections end with a paragraph entitled “Summary and Conclusions". The aim of these paragraphs is to summarise in brief the contents of the preceding section, thus enabling the student to go over the chief points of the exposition of problem or problems under consideration. Material for Reference at the end of the book and the footnotes, though by no means exhaustive, may be helpful to those who wish to attain a more complete and thorough view of the lexicological problems.
| 1. Different types of dictionaries The theory and practice of compiling dictionaries is called lexicography. Dictionaries can be classified into different types on the basis of several criteria, varying from the nature of the lexical entry to the prospective user of the dictionary. Below are presented some main criteria for the classification of dictionaries. (1) Density of entries: whether the word list is general or restricted and special? Does it also cover regional and social dialects, jargons and slangs and archaisms? 2. Connection of lexicology with other linguistic disciplines LG and Phonetics. A word is then association of a given group of sounds with the given meaning (tip-top). A word unity is conditioned by a number of phonological units. Phonemes follow each other in a fixed sequence (tip-top)/ the discrimination between words may be based upon stress (‘im’port). Stress also distinguishes compounds from homonymies of the group (blackbird – black bird). Ph-cs helps in the studying of synonyms, homonyms, polysemy. LG and Stylistics. The problem of meaning, connotations, synonymy, functional differention of the vocabulary according to the sphere of communication and some issues. LG and Grammar are connected in the object of their study. Even isolated words bare a definite relation to the grammatical system, because they belong to some part of speech & conform to some lexical, grammatical characteristics of the word class to which they belong. The ties between lexicology and grammar are particularly strong in the sphere of word formation. The characteristic features of English word building, the morphological structure of the English word are depended on the peculiarity of the grammatical system. LG and Social Linguistics SL is the branch of Linguistics dealing with the causal relations between the way a word develops and facts of social life. The changes of the language are due to the linguistic and extra linguistic courses, or to a combination of both. History of language. LG uses information which is provided by the history of language. It studies changes in the word stock (словарный запас), process of language enrichment. LG and Semeiology. Changes of word meanings in the course of language development are studied by Semeiology. LG includes information are compiling (составление) dictionaries. This brunch of LG names lexicography.
| N 3 1.Classification of borrowings(заимствования) in Modern English Borrowing words from other languages is characteristic of English throughout its history More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish). Borrowed words are different from native ones by their phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms. It is also characterisitic of borrowings to be non-motivated semantically. English history is very rich in different types of contacts with other countries, that is why it is very rich in borrowings. The Roman invasion, the adoption of Cristianity, Scandinavian and Norman conquests of the British Isles, the development of British colonialism and trade and cultural relations served to increase immensely the English vocabulary. The majority of these borrowings are fully assimilated in English in their pronunciation, grammar, spelling and can be hardly distinguished from native words. English continues to take in foreign words , but now the quantity of borrowings is not so abundunt as it was before. All the more so, English now has become a «giving» language, it has become Lingva franca of the twentieth century. Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria: a) according to the aspect which is borrowed, b) according to the degree of assimilation, c) according to the language from which the word was borrowed. (In this classification only the main languages from which words were borrowed into English are described, such as Latin, French, Italian. Spanish, German and Russian.) 2.Different approaches to the study of lexicology/ There are two principle approaches in linguistic science to the study of language material : synchronic & diachronic . With regard to Special lexicology the synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as it exists at a given time . It’s Special Descriptive lexicology that deals with the vocabulary & vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time . The diachronic approach in terms of Special lexicology deals with the changes & the development of vocabulary in the coarse of time . It is Special Historical lexicology that deals with the evaluation of the vocabulary units of a language as the time goes by . The two approaches shouldn’t be set one against the other . In fact , they are interconnected & interrelated because every linguistic structure & system exists in a state of constant development so that the synchronic state of a language system is a result of a long process of linguistic evaluation , of its historical development . Closely connected with the Historical lexicology is Contrastive & Comparative lexicology whose aims are to study the correlation between the vocabularies of two or more languages & find out the correspondences between the vocabulary units of the languages under comparison . Lexicology studies various lexical units . They are : morphemes , words , variable word-groups & phraseological units . We proceed from the assumption that the word is the basic unit of the language system , the largest on morphological & the smallest on syntactic plane of linguistic analyses . The word is a structural & semantic entity within the language system . The word as well as any linguistic sign is a two-faced unit possessing both form & content or , to be more exact , sound-form & meaning . e. g. boy – бой When used in actual speech the word undergoes certain modification & functions in one of its forms . The system showing a word in all its word-forms is called a paradigm . The lexical meaning of a word is the same throughout the paradigm . The grammatical meaning varies from one form to another . Therefore when we speak on any word as used in actual speech we use the term “word” conventionally because what is manifested in the utterances is not a word as a whole but one of its forms which is identified as belonging to the definite paradigm . Words as a whole are to be found in the dictionary (showing the paradigm n – noun , v – verb , etc).There are two approaches to the paradigm : as a system of forms of one word revealing the differences & the relationships between them . e. g. to see – saw - seen – seeing ( different forms have different relations ) In abstraction from concrete words the paradigm is treated as a pattern on which every word of one part of speech models its forms , thus serving to distinguish one part of speech from another . -s -‘s -s’ nouns, of-phrases Besides the grammatical forms of words there are lexical varieties which are called “variants” of words .Words seldom possess only one meaning , but used in speech each word reveals only that meaning which is required . e. g. to learn at school to make a dress to learn about smth. ⁄smbd. to make smbd. do smth. These are lexico-semantic variants . There are also phonetic & morphological variants . e. g. “often” can be pronounced in two ways, though the sound-form is slightly changed , the meaning remains unchangeable . We can build the forms of the word “to dream” in different ways : to dream – dreamt – dreamt dreamed–dreamed Like words-forms variants of words are identified in the process of communication as making up one & the same word . Thus , within the language system the word exists as a system & unity of all its forms & variants .
| N 4 1.Principal characteristics of the word/ Word is a basic meaningful unit of language in Russia, in Engl - morphema. Word consist of form and meaning. According to the dictionary definition, word is the smallest unit of speech which has meaning then is taken by itself. W – main linguist unit of LG. It is separate and definitely formed. W denote objective things of reality. And yet, the word should be and can be defined, and the definition should be based on the most important characteristics of the word which are as follows: 1. The word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication. So the word can be defined as a unit of communication. 2. The word is the total of the sounds which compose it. 3. The word possesses both external and internal characteristics. a) By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure. For example, in the word “post-impressionists” the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-, im-, the root “press”, the noun-forming sufixes –ion, -ist, and the grammatical suffix of plurality –s. b) By the internal structure is understood the semantic structure of the word, or its meaning. Meaning is the word’s main aspect and it is only due to their meanings that words can serve the purposes of human communication. c) The word possesses both external, formal and internal, semantic unity. Formal unity implies that no other elements can be inserted between the component morphemes of the word which are permanently linked together (a blackbird vs a black bird – a black night bird). The word’s semantic unity consists in the fact that it conveys only one concept. For example, the word “blackbird” conveys only one concept: the type of bird. The word-group “a black bird” conveys two concepts: a colour and a a type of animal. 4. The word can be used in different grammatical forms. All that has been said about the word can be summed up as follows: the word is a unit used for purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, characterised by formal and semantic unity and a capacity for grammatical employment.
2.Classification of English borrowings according to the degree of assimilation/ Классификация Английских заимствований в зависимости от степени усвоения The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors: a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier, b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker, c) how often the borrowing is used in the language, the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated, d) how long the word lives in the language, the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is. Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into: completely assimilated, partly assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms). Completely assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words in the language, cf the French word «sport» and the native word «start». Completely assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs, e.g. correct -corrected. Completely assimilated nouns form their plural by means of s-inflexion, e.g. gate- gates. In completely assimilated French words the stress has been shifted from the last syllable to the last but one. Semantic assimilation of borrowed words depends on the words existing in the borrowing language, as a rule, a borrowed word does not bring all its meanings into the borrowing language, if it is polysemantic, e.g. the Russian borrowing «sputnik» is used in English only in one of its meanings. Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups: a) borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, e.g. sari, sombrero, taiga, kvass etc. b) borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek retain their plural forms (bacillus - bacilli, phenomenon - phenomena, datum -data, genius - genii etc. c) borrowings non-assimilated phonetically. Here belong words with the initial sounds /v/ and /z/, e.g. voice, zero. In native words these voiced consonants are used only in the intervocal position as allophones of sounds /f/ and /s/ ( loss - lose, life - live ). Some Scandinavian borrowings have consonants and combinations of consonants which were not palatalized, e.g. /sk/ in the words: sky, skate, ski etc (in native words we have the palatalized sounds denoted by the digraph «sh», e.g. shirt); sounds /k/ and /g/ before front vowels are not palatalized e.g. girl, get, give, kid, kill, kettle. In native words we have palatalization , e.g. German, child. Some French borrowings have retained their stress on the last syllable, e.g. police, cartoon. Some French borrowings retain special combinations of sounds, e.g. /a:3/ in the words : camouflage, bourgeois, some of them retain the combination of sounds /wa:/ in the words: memoir, boulevard. d) borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically, e.g. in Greak borrowings «y» can be spelled in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym), «ph» denotes the sound /f/ (phoneme, morpheme), «ch» denotes the sound /k/(chemistry, chaos),«ps» denotes the sound /s/ (psychology). Latin borrowings retain their polisyllabic structure, have double consonants, as a rule, the final consonant of the prefix is assimilated with the initial consonant of the stem, (accompany, affirmative). French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, e.g. consonants «p», «t», «s» are not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet, coup, debris), Specifically French combination of letters «eau» /ou/ can be found in the borrowings : beau, chateau, troussaeu. Some of digraphs retain their French pronunciation: ‘ch’ is pronounced as /sh/, e.g. chic, parachute, ‘qu’ is pronounced as /k/ e.g. bouquet, «ou» is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. rouge; some letters retain their French pronunciation, e.g. «i» is pronounced as /i:/, e,g, chic, machine; «g» is pronounced as /3/, e.g. rouge. Modern German borrowings also have some peculiarities in their spelling: common nouns are spelled with a capital letter e.g. Autobahn, Lebensraum; some vowels and digraphs retain their German pronunciation, e.g. «a» is pronounced as /a:/ (Dictat), «u» is pronounced as /u:/ (Kuchen), «au» is pronounced as /au/ (Hausfrau), «ei» is pronounced as /ai/ (Reich); some consonants are also pronounced in the German way, e.g. «s» before a vowel is pronounced as /z/ (Sitskrieg), «v» is pronounced as /f/ (Volkswagen), «w» is pronounced as /v/ , «ch» is pronounced as /h/ (Kuchen). Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are borrowings which are used by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, e.g. addio (Italian), tete-a-tete (French), dolce vita (Italian), duende (Spanish), an homme a femme (French), gonzo (Italian) etc.
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1.Different points of view on the existence of the word/ Различные точки зрения на существование слова Word is a basic meaningful unit of language in Russia, in Engl - morphema. Word consist of form and meaning. According to the dictionary definition, word is the smallest unit of speech which has meaning then is taken by itself. W – main linguist unit of LG. It is separate and definitely formed. W denote objective things of reality. And yet, the word should be and can be defined, and the definition should be based on the most important characteristics of the word which are as follows: 1. The word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication. So the word can be defined as a unit of communication. 2. The word is the total of the sounds which compose it. 3. The word possesses both external and internal characteristics. a) By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure. For example, in the word “post-impressionists” the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-, im-, the root “press”, the noun-forming sufixes –ion, -ist, and the grammatical suffix of plurality –s. b) By the internal structure is understood the semantic structure of the word, or its meaning. Meaning is the word’s main aspect and it is only due to their meanings that words can serve the purposes of human communication. c) The word possesses both external, formal and internal, semantic unity. Formal unity implies that no other elements can be inserted between the component morphemes of the word which are permanently linked together (a blackbird vs a black bird – a black night bird). The word’s semantic unity consists in the fact that it conveys only one concept. For example, the word “blackbird” conveys only one concept: the type of bird. The word-group “a black bird” conveys two concepts: a colour and a a type of animal. 4. The word can be used in different grammatical forms. All that has been said about the word can be summed up as follows: the word is a unit used for purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, characterised by formal and semantic unity and a capacity for grammatical employment. 2.Variants of Modern English Modern English has a large number of dialects spoken in diverse countries throughout the world. This includes American English, Australian English, British English, Canadian English, Caribbean English, Hiberno-English, Indo-Pakistani English, Nigerian English, New Zealand English, Philippine English, Singaporean English, and South African English. According to the Ethnologue, there are over 1 billion speakers of English as a first or second language as of 1999. Chinese has a smaller geographical range and is spoken primarily in mainland China and Taiwan and also by a sizable immigrant community in North America. Additionally, Chinese is itself divided into a number of regional dialects that may not be mutually intelligible in spoken form. In contrast, English is spoken in a vast number of territories including the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, the United States of America, Australia, New Zealand, India, Pakistan, Singapore and Southern Africa. Its large number of speakers, plus its worldwide presence, have made English a common language for use in such diverse applications as controlling aircraft, developing software, conducting international diplomacy, and business relations. | N 7 1.Standard English/ Стандартный английский Standard English is defined by the Random House Dictionary as the English language as it is written and spoken by literate people in both formal and informal usage and that is universally current while incorporating regional differences Standard English refers to whatever form of the English language is accepted as a national norm in an Anglophone country. It encompasses grammar, vocabulary, and spelling. In Britain, it is often associated with the RP accent, and also known as Queen's English and in the United States with the General American accent. There is, however, unlike the case of other standard languages, no official or central regulating body defining Standard English. Such prescriptivist organizations as there are (e.g. the Queen's English Society) are private charities. Although Standard English is generally the most formal version of the language, there exists a range of registers within Standard English, as is often seen when comparing a newspaper article with an academic paper, for example. A distinction also should be drawn between spoken and written standards. Spoken standards are traditionally looser than their written counterparts, and quicker to accept new grammatical forms and vocabulary. The various geographical varieties of S.E. more or less adhere in their written form to a generally-accepted set of rules, often those established by grammarians of the eighteenth century. 2. Different types of word-building in Modern English / Различные типы словообразования в современном английском языке Word formation (словообразование) It’s a process of creating new words from material available in the language after a certain structural and semantic formulas and pattern, forming words by combining root & affix morphemes. 2 types of word formation: 1) Compounding (словосложение) 2) Word – derivation (словообразование) Within the types further distinction may be made between the ways of forming words. The basic way of forming words is word-derivation affixation and conversion apart from this shortening and a number of minor ways of formal words such as back-forming, blending, sound imitation are traditionally referred to formation. Different types of word formation: Affixation is the formation of new words by means of suffixes and prefixes to stems\basis. Affixes may be grouped 1) according to their linguistic origin. We distinguish affixes of Germanic origin (full, less), of Romanic origin (ion), of Greek origin (ise, izm); 2) according to the parts of speech. We distinguish noun forming, adj. forming and verb forming affixes; 3) according to semantic functions. They may denote persons, quality, negation. Many suffixes originated from separate words: hood originated for the noun hood, which meant state or condition; full – полный (adj. In O.E) now it is suffix. Suffixes may change the part of speech: critic (al). All suffixes are divided into lexical and grammatical. Lexical suffixes build new word. Productive affixes. For ex: read-readable, happy-happiness, act-actor. Grammatical suffixes change the grammatical form of a word. Often used to create neologisms and nonce-words (I don’t like Sunday evenings: I feel so mondayish). For ex: finish-finished, say-says, rose-roses. Some productive suffixes: Noun forming – er, ing, is, ist, ance Adj – forming – y, ish, ed, able, less Adv – forming – ly Verb – forming - Ize, /ise, ate Prefixies - Un, die, re Conversion (zero derivation) it is one of the major ways of enriching EV & referrers to the numerous cases of phonetic identity of word forms of 2 words belonging to different part of speech.. The new word has a meaning which differs from that of original one though it can >< be associated with it. nurse (noun) to nurse – to feed A certain stem is used for the formation of a categorically different word without a derivative element being added. Bag – to bag, Back – to back , Bottle – to bottle This specific pattern is very productive in English The most popular types are noun →verb or verb→noun To take off – a take off Conversion can be total or partial. Partial: the then president (тогдашний). An adverb is used as an adjective, only in this particular context. Total: work – to work
Conversion may be the result of shading of English endings. The historical changes may be briefly outlined as follows: in O.E. a verb and a noun of the same root were distinguished by their endings. For ex: the verb ‘to love’ had a form (Old Eng.) ‘lufian’. This verb had personal conjunctions. The noun ‘love’ had the form ‘lufu’ with different case endings. But in the course of time, the personal and case endings were lost. There are numerous pairs of words (e. g. love, n. — to love, v.; work, n. — to work, v.; drink, n. — to drink, v., etc.) which did, not occur due to conversion but coincided as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of endings, simplification of stems) when before that they had different forms (e. g. O. E. lufu, n. — lufian, v.). The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf, to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor, to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon, and very many others. Nouns are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This is the queerest do I''ve ever come across. Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He has still plenty of go at his age. Go — energy), make, run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move, etc. Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough (e. g. We decided to rough it in the tents as the weather was warm), etc. Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the following examples show: to down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n, (as in the like of me and the like of you). Compounding & word comparison. Compound words are made of 2 derivational stems. The types of structure of CW: neutral, morphological &syntactic. In neutral compound the process is released without any linking elements sunflower. There are three types of neutral compounds simple compounds went a compound consist of a simple affixes stems. Derivate/ derivational compound - has affixes babysitter. Contracted – has a shorten stems. TV-set Morphological C – few in number. This type is non productive. Represented by words, where 2 stems are combined by a linking vowel/ consonant Anglo-Saxon, statesman, craftsmanship. Syntactic C – formed of segments of speech preserving articles, prepositions, adverbs. Mother-in-law Reduplication. New word are made by stem ether without any phonetic changes Bye-Bye or variation of a root vowel or consonant ping-pong Shortening. There are 2 ways of producing them: 1. The word is formed from the syllable of the original word which in term may loose its beginning –phone, its ending vac (vacation) or both fridge. 2. The word is formed from the initial letter of a word group BB, bf – boyfriend. Acronyms are shorten words but read as one UNO [ju:nou] TYPES OF WF Sound imitation – words are made by imitating different links of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds…bark – лаять, mew – мяукать…some names of animals, birds & insects are made by SI coo-coo – кукушка, crow – ворона. To glide, to slip are supposed to convey the very sound of the smooth easy movement over a slippery surface. Back formation a verb is produced from a noun by subtraction (вычитание) bagger – to bag, babysitter – to babysit Blending - Is blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word), combining letters/sounds they have in common as a connecting element. Smoke + fog = smog, Breakfast + lunch = brunch, Smoke + haze = smaze (дымка) - addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of two words combined by a conjunction “and” smog → smoke & fog - blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive phrase, where the first element serves as modifier of a second. Positron – positive electron, Medicare – medical care Borrowings. Contemporary English is a unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary. In the comparison with other languages English possesses great richness of vocabulary. All languages are mixtures to a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English vocabulary is unique in this respect. A brief look on various historical strata of the English vocabulary: 1) through cultural contacts with Romans partly already on the continent and all through the influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words entered the language. Their origin is no longer felt by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint, mustard, school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel, bishop. The same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10th century) that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary. It means that their frequency is very high. They, their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take... They partly supersede the number of OE words OE heofon – heaven (sky) Niman – take Steorfan – die A more radical change & profound influence on the English vocabulary occurred on 1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15th cent., a great number of French words were adopted. They belong to the areas of court, church, law, state. Virtue, religion, parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour... The influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15th cent., but continued up to the 17th cent. Many French borrowings retained their original pronunciation & stress Champagne, ballet, machine, garage... Separate, attitude, constitute, introduce... Adjectives in English – arrogant, important, patient Sometimes with their derivatives: Demonstrative – demonstration Separate – separation 17-18 cc. due to the establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French. Italian: libretto, violin, opera Spanish: hurricane, tomato, tobacco Dutch: yacht, dog, landscape French: bouquet, buffet From the point of view of their etymology formal words are normally of classical Romanic origin, informal – Anglo-Saxon. Nowadays many Americanisms become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic travel & the influence of broadcast media. Even in London (Heathrow airport) “baggage” instead of “luggage” The present day English vocabulary is from being homogeneous
| N 8 1.Morphological structure of the word/ Морфологическая структура слова Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis. According to the number of morphemes words can be classified into monomorphic and polymorphic. Monomorphic or root-words consist of only one root-morpheme, e.g. small, dog, make, give, etc. All polymorphic word fall into two subgroups: derived words and compound words – according to the number of root-morphemes they have. Derived words are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes, e.g. acceptable, outdo, disagreeable, etc. Compound words are those which contain at least two root-morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant. There can be both root- and derivational morphemes in compounds as in pen-holder, light-mindedness, or only root-morphemes as in lamp-shade, eye-ball, etc. The term morpheme is of Greek and means “any kind of form”. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Free morpheme is it may stand alone without changing its meaning. If it is noun so it is bound. The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to) teach, teacher, teaching. Besides the lexical meaning root-morphemes possess all other types of meaning proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots. Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms. Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on the root which they modify. They possess the same types of meaning as found in roots, most of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them structurally the important part of the word as they condition the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to. Due to this component of their meaning the derivational affixes are classified into affixes building different parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs. Roots and derivational affixes are generally easily distinguished and the difference between them is clearly felt as, e.g., in the words helpless, handy, blackness, Londoner, refill, etc.: the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-, London-, fill-, are understood as the lexical centers of the words, and –less, -y, -ness, -er, re- are felt as morphemes dependent on these roots. Distinction is also made of free and bound morphemes. Free morphemes coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words. It is obvious that free morphemes can be found only among roots, so the morpheme boy- in the word boy is a free morpheme; in the word undesirable there is only one free morpheme desire-; the word pen-holder has two free morphemes pen- and hold-. It follows that bound morphemes are those that do not coincide with separate word- forms, consequently all derivational morphemes, such as –ness, -able, -er are bound. Root-morphemes may be both free and bound. The morphemes theor- in the words theory, theoretical, or horr- in the words horror, horrible, horrify; Angl- in Anglo-Saxon; Afr- in Afro-Asian are all bound roots as there are no identical word-forms. The stem is defined as that part of the word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm, thus the stem which appears in the paradigm (to) ask ( ), asks, asked, asking is ask-; the stem of the word singer ( ), singer’s, singers, singers’ is singer-. It is the stem of the word that takes the inflections which shape the word grammatically as one or another part of speech. Simple stems are semantically non-motivated and do not constitute a pattern on analogy with which new stems may be modeled. Simple stems are generally monomorphic and phonetically identical with the root morpheme. Retain, receive, horrible, pocket, motion, etc. should be regarded as simple, non- motivated stems. Derived stems – root and derivational affix. Compound stems are made up of two IC’s, both of which are themselves stems, for example match-box, driving-suit, pen-holder, etc. It is built by joining of two stems, one of which is simple, the other derived. Bound stem – is not harmonious to a separate word. To study the motivation of the word the method of immediate ultimate consistent is used. It is based on bannery opposition – each state of segmentation involves 2 components words brake into.
2.Peculiarities of “Cockney” dialect in Modern English / Особенности "кокни" диалекта в современном английском языке The term Cockney has both geographical and linguistic associations. Geographically and culturally, it often refers to working class Londoners, particularly those in the East End. Linguistically, it refers to the form of English spoken by this group. Cockney speakers have a distinctive accent and dialect, and frequently use rhyming slang. The Survey of English Dialects took a recording from a long-time resident of Hackney and the BBC made another recording in 1999 which showed how the accent had changed.[20][21] John Camden Hotten, in his Slang Dictionary of 1859, makes reference to "their use of a peculiar slang language" when describing the costermongers of London's East End. In terms of other slang, there are also several borrowings from Yiddish, including kosher (originally Hebrew, via Yiddish, meaning legitimate) and stumm (/ʃtʊm/ originally German, via Yiddish, meaning quiet),[22] as well as Romany, for example wonga (meaning money, from the Romany "wanga" meaning coal),[23] and cushty (from the Romany kushtipen, meaning good). A fake Cockney accent is sometimes called 'Mockney'. [edit] Typical features As with many accents of England, Cockney is non-rhotic. A final -er is pronounced [ə] or lowered [ɐ] in broad Cockney. As with all or nearly all non-rhotic accents, the lexical sets commA and lettER are merged. Thus, the last syllable of words like cheetah can be pronounced [ɐ] as well in broad Cockney.[24][25][26] Broad /ɑː/ is used when the letter a precedes /f/, /s/, /θ/ and sometimes /nd/ (in words such as bath, path, demand, etc.). This originated in London but has now spread across the south-east and into Received Pronunciation. However, there are exceptions to this rule; for example, the word maths or masculine.[27] See Trap-bath split for more information. T-glottalisation: Use of the glottal stop as an allophone of /t/ in various positions,[28][29] including after a stressed syllable. Glottal stops also occur, albeit less frequently for /k/ and /p/, and occasionally for mid-word consonants. For example, Richard Whiteing spelt "Hyde Park" as Hy' Par' . Like and light can be homophones. "Clapham" can be said as Cla'am.[27] /t/ may also be flapped intervocalically. London /p, t, k/ are often aspirated in intervocalic and final environments, e.g., upper, utter, rocker, up, out, rock, where RP is traditionally described as having the unaspirated variants. Also, in broad Cockney at least, the degree of aspiration is typically greater than in RP, and may often also involve some degree of affrication. Affrication may be encountered in initial, intervocalic, and final position.[30][31] o Th-fronting:[32] o o H-dropping. Sivertsen considers that [h] is to some extent a stylistic marker of emphasis in Cockney.[35][36] Diphthong alterations:[37] o o o o o o o Other vowel differences include o o o o o o o o o Vocalisation of dark L, hence [mɪowɔː] for Millwall. The actual realization of a vocalized /l/ is influenced by surrounding vowels and it may be realized as [u], [ʊ], [o] or [ɤ]. It is also transcribed as a semivowel [w] by some linguists, e.g., Coggle and Rosewarne.[54] Relatedly, there are many possible vowel neutralisations and absorptions in the context of a following "dark L" ([ɫ]) or its vocalised version; these include:[55] o o o o o o o o o Cockney has been occasionally described as replacing /r/ with /w/. For example, thwee instead of three, fwasty instead of frosty. Peter Wright, a Survey of English Dialects fieldworker, concluded that this was not a universal feature of Cockneys but that it was more common to hear this in the London area than anywhere else in Britain.[57] This description may also be a result of mishearing the labiodental R as /w/, when it is still a distinct phoneme in Cockney. An unstressed final -ow may be pronounced [ə]. In broad Cockney this can be lowered to [ɐ].[25][26] This is common to most traditional, Southern English dialects except for those in the West Country.[58] Grammatical features:[35] o o Use of double negatives, for example "I didn't see nothing."[59] Most of the features mentioned above have, in recent years, partly spread into more general south-eastern speech, giving the accent called Estuary English; an Estuary speaker will use some but not all of the Cockney sounds.[60][61][62] Some of the features may derive from the upper-class pronunciation of late 18th century London, such as the use of "ain't" for "isn't" and the now lost reversal of "v" and "w" (as noted by Dickens regarding Sam Weller/Veller).
| N 9 1. Differences between territorial and social English dialects/ Различия между территориальным и социальным Английскими диалектами For historical and economic reasons the English language has spread over vast territories. It is the national language of the UK, the USA, Australia, New Zeland and some provinces of Canada. Besides, it used to be a state language in the former colonies of the British Empire: in Asia, Africa, or in countries which fell under US domination in Central and South America. The key terms in studying the territorial varieties of the English language are: Standard English, variants, dialects. Standard English is the official language of Great Britain taught at schools and universities, used by the press, the radio and the television and spoken by educated people. Local dialects are varieties of the English Language peculiar to some districts and having no normalized literary form. Regional varieties possessing a literary form are called variants. In GB there are two variants: Scottish English and Irish English, and five main groups of dialects: Nothern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. Every group contains several (up to ten) dialects. Among the regional varieties beyond the borders of GB American English is the most important, as it has its own literary standards, i.e. its own generally accepted norms of speaking and writing. american English can not be called a dialect since it has a literary normalized form called Standard American, while a dialect has no litrary form. Canadian, Australian and Indian English can also be considered regional varieties of English with their own peculiarities. The differences between British English (BE) and American English (AmE) are observed in the vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and spelling. There is a number of differences between British and American lexicons. There exist words which belong only to American vocabulary and constitute its specific feature. These words are called Americanisms (the term was introduced by Sir John Witherspoon, rector of Princeton University). Among Americanisms the following major groups of words are distinguished: historical Americanisms, proper Americanisms and borrowings. The examples of historical Americanisms are the words: fall (autumn), to guess (in the meaning “to think”), sick (in the meaning “ill, unwell”). In BE their meanings have changed, while in AmE these words still retain their old meanings. Proper Americanisms are words that are specifically American. They denote American realia, objects of American flora and fauna: Congress, House of Representatives, District Attorney, forty-niner (золотоискатель 1949 года), prairie scooner (фургон переселенцев), jump a claim (захватить чужой участок), drugstore, blue-grass, catbird (американский пересмешник), bullfrog, etc. They are also names of objects which are called differently in the US and in GB: store – shop, baggage – luggage, subway – underground, railroad – railway, gasoline – petrol, department – faculty, etc. AmE is rich in specifically American borrowings which reflect the historical contacts of the Americans with other nations on the American continent. Among such borrowings are Spanish borrowings (ranch, sombrero, canyon, tornado), Afro-American borrowings (banjo), German borrowings (lager beer and black beer, frankfurter) and especially Indian borrowings (the words wigwam, canoe, mocassin, tomahauk, racoon, skunk, names of places, rivers, lakes and states: Mississippi, Ohio, Michigan, Tennessee, Illinois, Kentucky. The differences between Canadian and BE are concerned mainly with intonation. As for the vocabulary, some words do not differ from their British counterparts while others are the same as in AmE: to guess (“to think”), rooster (“cock”), sidewalk (“pavemant”), store (“shop”). Australian English, too, differs from BE mainly in phonetics: the pronunciation is characterized by the nasal twang (is nasalized), like that of Americans, by indistinct pronunciation of the consonants p,b,w, n (the so-called American lip-laziness), Australian speech is somewhat slow, lengthy and monotonous. In the vocabulary there is a number of typically local words like coala, dingo, bandicoot (сумчатая крыса) and various placenames borrowed from the native inhabitants. Indian English differs from BE in pronunciation (take – [tek], young – [o], etc.) and vocabulary. It contains a great number of words taken from the native language: curry, bandana, khaki, sari, sahib, bundgalow, etc. Some of them have become international. The mass media, constant international contacts facilitate the levelling of differences between variants and dialects of the English language. 2. Classification of English compounds according to the type of composition / Классификация английских соединений в зависимости от словосложения Without connecting elements (movie star) Linking element vowel or consonant (sportsman, speedometer) By means of prepositional or conjunction (mother-in-law, matter-of-course – очевидный) Не уверена According to the structure of consequence: compound consist of simple stems; one of the components derived (производный) stems (smoker); one of the components is clipped (усеченная) stem (waste paper basket).
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N 10
1. Classification of English compounds according to their structure 2. Various stylistic layers of the English vocabulary/ Stylistically words can be roughly subdivided into literary, neutral and colloquial layers.1 The greater part of the literаrу layer of Modern English vocabulary are words of general use, possessing no specific stylistic reference and known as neutral words. Against the background of neutral words we can distinguish two major subgroups — standard colloquial words and literary or bookish words. This may be best illustrated by comparing words almost identical in their denotational meaning, e. g., ‘parent — father — dad’. In comparison with the word father which is stylistically neutral, dad stands out as colloquial and parent is felt as bookish. The stylistic reference of standard colloquial words is clearly observed when we compare them with their neutral synonyms, e.g. chum — friend, rot — nonsense, etc. This is also true of literary or bookish words, such as, e.g., to presume (cf. to suppose), to anticipate (cf. to expect) and others. Literary (bookish) words are not stylistically homogeneous. Besides general-literary (bookish) words, e.g. harmony, calamity, alacrity, etc., we may single out various specific subgroups, namely: 1) terms or scientific words such as, e g., renaissance, genocide, teletype, etc.; 2) poetic words and archaisms such as, e.g., whilome — ‘formerly’, aught — ‘anything’, ere — ‘before’, albeit — ‘although’, fare — ‘walk’, etc., tarry — ‘remain’, nay — ‘no’; 3) barbarisms and foreign words, such as, e.g., bon mot — ‘a clever or witty saying’, apropos, faux pas, bouquet, etc. The colloquial words may be subdivided into: 1) Common colloquial words. 2) Slang, i.e. words which are often regarded as a violation of the norms of Standard English, e.g. governor for ‘father’, missus for ‘wife’, a gag for ‘a joke’, dotty for ‘insane’. 3) Professionalisms, i.e. words used in narrow groups bound by the same occupation, such as, e.g., lab for ‘laboratory’, hypo for ‘hypodermic syringe’, a buster for ‘a bomb’, etc. 4) Jargonisms, i.e. words marked by their use within a particular social group and bearing a secret and cryptic character, e.g. a sucker — ‘a person who is easily deceived’, a squiffer — ‘a concertina’. 5) Vulgarisms, i.e. coarse words that are not generally used in public, e.g. bloody, hell, damn, shut up, etc. 6) Dialectical words, e.g. lass, kirk, etc. 7) Colloquial coinages, e.g. newspaperdom, allrightnik, etc.
| N 11 1.Sub-groups of the literary layer in Modern English/
2.Productive ways of the English vocabulary enrichment / no vocabulary of any living language is ever stable but is constantly changing, growing and decaying. The changes occurring in the vocabulary are due both to linguistic and non-linguistic causes, but in most cases to the combination of both. Words may drop out altogether as a result of the disappearance of the actual objects they denote or any thing else. Yet the number of new words that appear in the language is so much greater than those that drop out or become obsolete, that the development of vocabularies may be described as a process of never-ending growth. A. vocabulary extension — the appearance of new lexical items. New vocabulary units appear mainly as a result of: 1. productive or patterned ways of word-formation; 2. non-patterned ways of word-creation; 3. borrowing from other languages. B. semantic extension — the appearance of new meanings of existing words which may result in homonyms. Productive1 word-formation is the most effective means of enriching the vocabulary. New words in different notional classes appear also as a result of various non-patterned ways of word creation. The two main types of non-patterned word-creation are: I. Various ways of transformation of a word-form into a word usually referred to as lexicalisation and II. Shortening which consists in substituting a part for a whole. Shortening comprises essentially different ways of word creation. It involves 1. transformation of a word-group into a word, and 2. a change of the word-structure resulting in a new lexical item, i.e. clipping. Borrowing as a means of replenishing the vocabulary of present-day English is of much lesser importance and is active mainly in the field of scientific -terminology. It should be noted that many terms are often made up of borrowed morphemes, mostly morphemes from classical languages.2 Semantic extension of words already available in the language is a powerful source of qualitative growth and development of the vocabulary though it does not necessarily add to its numerical growth; it is only the split of polysemy that results in the appearance of new vocabulary units thus increasing the number of words.1 In this connection it should be remembered that the border-line between a new meaning of the word and its lexical homonym is in many cases so vague that it is often difficult to state with any degree of certainty whether we have another meaning of the original word or its homonym — a new self-contained word,2 e.g. in the verb to sit-in — ‘to join a group in playing cards’ and a newly recorded use of to sit-in — ‘to remain unserved in the available seats in a cafe in protest against Jimcrowism’, or ‘to demonstrate by occupying a building and staying there until their grievances are considered or until the demonstrators themselves are ejected' — the meanings are so widely apart that they are definitely felt as homonyms.
| N 12 1.Different types of word-building in Modern English Word formation (словообразование) It’s a process of creating new words from material available in the language after a certain structural and semantic formulas and pattern, forming words by combining root & affix morphemes. 2 types of word formation: 1) Compounding (словосложение) 2) Word – derivation (словообразование) Within the types further distinction may be made between the ways of forming words. The basic way of forming words is word-derivation affixation and conversion apart from this shortening and a number of minor ways of formal words such as back-forming, blending, sound imitation are traditionally referred to formation. Different types of word formation: Affixation is the formation of new words by means of suffixes and prefixes to stems\basis. Affixes may be grouped 1) according to their linguistic origin. We distinguish affixes of Germanic origin (full, less), of Romanic origin (ion), of Greek origin (ise, izm); 2) according to the parts of speech. We distinguish noun forming, adj. forming and verb forming affixes; 3) according to semantic functions. They may denote persons, quality, negation. Many suffixes originated from separate words: hood originated for the noun hood, which meant state or condition; full – полный (adj. In O.E) now it is suffix. Suffixes may change the part of speech: critic (al). All suffixes are divided into lexical and grammatical. Lexical suffixes build new word. Productive affixes. For ex: read-readable, happy-happiness, act-actor. Grammatical suffixes change the grammatical form of a word. Often used to create neologisms and nonce-words (I don’t like Sunday evenings: I feel so mondayish). For ex: finish-finished, say-says, rose-roses. Some productive suffixes: Noun forming – er, ing, is, ist, ance Adj – forming – y, ish, ed, able, less Adv – forming – ly Verb – forming - Ize, /ise, ate Prefixies - Un, die, re Conversion (zero derivation) it is one of the major ways of enriching EV & referrers to the numerous cases of phonetic identity of word forms of 2 words belonging to different part of speech.. The new word has a meaning which differs from that of original one though it can >< be associated with it. nurse (noun) to nurse – to feed A certain stem is used for the formation of a categorically different word without a derivative element being added. Bag – to bag, Back – to back , Bottle – to bottle This specific pattern is very productive in English The most popular types are noun →verb or verb→noun To take off – a take off Conversion can be total or partial. Partial: the then president (тогдашний). An adverb is used as an adjective, only in this particular context. Total: work – to work
Conversion may be the result of shading of English endings. The historical changes may be briefly outlined as follows: in O.E. a verb and a noun of the same root were distinguished by their endings. For ex: the verb ‘to love’ had a form (Old Eng.) ‘lufian’. This verb had personal conjunctions. The noun ‘love’ had the form ‘lufu’ with different case endings. But in the course of time, the personal and case endings were lost. There are numerous pairs of words (e. g. love, n. — to love, v.; work, n. — to work, v.; drink, n. — to drink, v., etc.) which did, not occur due to conversion but coincided as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of endings, simplification of stems) when before that they had different forms (e. g. O. E. lufu, n. — lufian, v.). The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf, to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor, to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon, and very many others. Nouns are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This is the queerest do I''ve ever come across. Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He has still plenty of go at his age. Go — energy), make, run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move, etc. Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough (e. g. We decided to rough it in the tents as the weather was warm), etc. Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the following examples show: to down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n, (as in the like of me and the like of you). Compounding & word comparison. Compound words are made of 2 derivational stems. The types of structure of CW: neutral, morphological &syntactic. In neutral compound the process is released without any linking elements sunflower. There are three types of neutral compounds simple compounds went a compound consist of a simple affixes stems. Derivate/ derivational compound - has affixes babysitter. Contracted – has a shorten stems. TV-set Morphological C – few in number. This type is non productive. Represented by words, where 2 stems are combined by a linking vowel/ consonant Anglo-Saxon, statesman, craftsmanship. Syntactic C – formed of segments of speech preserving articles, prepositions, adverbs. Mother-in-law Reduplication. New word are made by stem ether without any phonetic changes Bye-Bye or variation of a root vowel or consonant ping-pong Shortening. There are 2 ways of producing them: 1. The word is formed from the syllable of the original word which in term may loose its beginning –phone, its ending vac (vacation) or both fridge. 2. The word is formed from the initial letter of a word group BB, bf – boyfriend. Acronyms are shorten words but read as one UNO [ju:nou] TYPES OF WF Sound imitation – words are made by imitating different links of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds…bark – лаять, mew – мяукать…some names of animals, birds & insects are made by SI coo-coo – кукушка, crow – ворона. To glide, to slip are supposed to convey the very sound of the smooth easy movement over a slippery surface. Back formation a verb is produced from a noun by subtraction (вычитание) bagger – to bag, babysitter – to babysit Blending - Is blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word), combining letters/sounds they have in common as a connecting element. Smoke + fog = smog, Breakfast + lunch = brunch, Smoke + haze = smaze (дымка) - addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of two words combined by a conjunction “and” smog → smoke & fog - blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive phrase, where the first element serves as modifier of a second. Positron – positive electron, Medicare – medical care Borrowings. Contemporary English is a unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary. In the comparison with other languages English possesses great richness of vocabulary. All languages are mixtures to a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English vocabulary is unique in this respect. A brief look on various historical strata of the English vocabulary: 1) through cultural contacts with Romans partly already on the continent and all through the influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words entered the language. Their origin is no longer felt by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint, mustard, school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel, bishop. The same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10th century) that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary. It means that their frequency is very high. They, their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take... They partly supersede the number of OE words OE heofon – heaven (sky) Niman – take Steorfan – die A more radical change & profound influence on the English vocabulary occurred on 1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15th cent., a great number of French words were adopted. They belong to the areas of court, church, law, state. Virtue, religion, parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour... The influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15th cent., but continued up to the 17th cent. Many French borrowings retained their original pronunciation & stress Champagne, ballet, machine, garage... Separate, attitude, constitute, introduce... Adjectives in English – arrogant, important, patient Sometimes with their derivatives: Demonstrative – demonstration Separate – separation 17-18 cc. due to the establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French. Italian: libretto, violin, opera Spanish: hurricane, tomato, tobacco Dutch: yacht, dog, landscape French: bouquet, buffet
From the point of view of their etymology formal words are normally of classical Romanic origin, informal – Anglo-Saxon. Nowadays many Americanisms become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic travel & the influence of broadcast media. Even in London (Heathrow airport) “baggage” instead of “luggage” The present day English vocabulary is from being homogeneous
2.Characterize the colloquial English vocabulary/ Охарактеризовать разговорный английский словарь
The colloquial words may be subdivided into: 8) Common colloquial words. 9) Slang, i.e. words which are often regarded as a violation of the norms of Standard English, e.g. governor for ‘father’, missus for ‘wife’, a gag for ‘a joke’, dotty for ‘insane’. 10) Professionalisms, i.e. words used in narrow groups bound by the same occupation, such as, e.g., lab for ‘laboratory’, hypo for ‘hypodermic syringe’, a buster for ‘a bomb’, etc. 11) Jargonisms, i.e. words marked by their use within a particular social group and bearing a secret and cryptic character, e.g. a sucker — ‘a person who is easily deceived’, a squiffer — ‘a concertina’. 12) Vulgarisms, i.e. coarse words that are not generally used in public, e.g. bloody, hell, damn, shut up, etc. 13) Dialectical words, e.g. lass, kirk, etc. 14) Colloquial coinages, e.g. newspaperdom, allrightnik, etc.
| N 13 1.Characterize types of terms in Modern English/ 2.Subject of lexicology/ Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, it is study of words. The term is composed of two Greek morphemes: logos – learning, Lexus – word, phrase. Lexicology studies words and word combination. LG is a branch of linguistics and has its own aims and methods of scientific research. Its basic task is to study and descript systematically the vocabulary in respect to (что касается) its origin, development and current use. LG is concerned with words, variable workgroups, phrasiological units and with morphemes. Modern English LG investigates (исследовать) the problems of word structure and word formation (образование) in modern English, the semantic structure of English words, the classification of vocabulary units, the laws and the development of the vocabulary. It also studies the source and the growth of the EV and the changes. Branches: The General LG – the general study of words and vocabulary. Linguistic phenomena and properties common to all languages are generally referred as language universals. The Special LG – is the LG of a particular language. That’s the study of and description of its vocabulary and vocabulary units. The Historical LG – the evolution of any vocabulary. It discusses the origin of various words, their change and development, investigates linguistics and extra linguistics forces. The object - its single elements, modifying their structure, meaning and usage. The Contrastive and Comparative LG - their aims are to study the correlation between the vocabularies of 2 or more languages and find out the correspondences between the vocabulary units. The descriptive LG – deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development. LG also studies all kinds of semantic grouping and semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, homonymy, semantic fields. Meaning relations as a whole are dealed within semantics – the Study of meaning. There are two principal approaches (подход) in linguistic science to the study of language material: The synchronic (historical). Concerned with the study and description of a language system at a certain time. The diachronic. Deals with the changes and the development of the vocabulary on the course of time. The two approaches are interconnected and interdependent. The synchronic state of a language is the result of a long process of linguistic evolution of its historical development. Eg: to bag – bagger (closely connected with the history, bagger is borrowed from Old French).
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N 14 1. Connection of lexicology with other linguistic disciplines LG and other branches of science LG and Phonetics. A word is then association of a given group of sounds with the given meaning (tip-top). A word unity is conditioned by a number of phonological units. Phonemes follow each other in a fixed sequence (tip-top)/ the discrimination between words may be based upon stress (‘im’port). Stress also distinguishes compounds from homonymies of the group (blackbird – black bird). Ph-cs helps in the studying of synonyms, homonyms, polysemy. LG and Stylistics. The problem of meaning, connotations, synonymy, functional differention of the vocabulary according to the sphere of communication and some issues. LG and Grammar are connected in the object of their study. Even isolated words bare a definite relation to the grammatical system, because they belong to some part of speech & conform to some lexical, grammatical characteristics of the word class to which they belong. The ties between lexicology and grammar are particularly strong in the sphere of word formation. The characteristic features of English word building, the morphological structure of the English word are depended on the peculiarity of the grammatical system. LG and Social Linguistics SL is the branch of Linguistics dealing with the causal relations between the way a word develops and facts of social life. The changes of the language are due to the linguistic and extra linguistic courses, or to a combination of both. History of language. LG uses information which is provided by the history of language. It studies changes in the word stock (словарный запас), process of language enrichment. LG and Semeiology. Changes of word meanings in the course of language development are studied by Semeiology. LG includes information are compiling (составление) dictionaries. This brunch of LG names lexicography. 2. Characterize sub-groups of the literary layer/ Охарактеризовать подгруппы литературного слоя
| N 15 1.Characterize various stylistic layers of the English vocabulary/ In different situations we use different kinds of words to express our thoughts. There are formal and informal situations, and acordingly, formal and informal words and styles. An example of a formal situation is a lecture, a speech in court, a formal letter, professional communication. An example of an informal situation is a friendly talk, an intimate letter. So, all words are divided into two main groups: 1) words of the formal style and 2) words of the informal style. Besides, one more group is constituted by basic vocabulary units, which do not belong to any of the above-mentioned groups. I. Words of the informal style include colloquial words, slang and dialect words. 1. Colloquial words. Colloquial words are subdivided into a) literary b) familiar and c) low colloquial words. a. Literary colloquiallisms are used in everyday conversational speech both by cultivated and uneducated people: kid (for “child”), pal, chum (for “friend”), hi, hello, zip (for “zip fastener”), exam, fridge, flu. b. Familiar colloquial words are used mostly by the young and the semi-educated: doc (doctor), ta-ta (good-bye), shut up, beat it (go away). c. The low colloquial group is formed by obscene, vulgar, swear words used mostly in the speech of uncultivated people. Colloquial words should not be used under formal circamstances, in compositions and reports. 2. Slang words. All or most slang words are metaphores rooted in a joke: nuts (for “heads”), mugs (for “faces”), flippers (ласты) (for “hands”), etc. Slang is mainly used by the young and uneducated and helps the speakers dissosiate themselves from others. In the course of time slang words either disappear or become neutral lexical units (slang is colourful, humourous and catching and may be accepted by all the groups of speakers). 3. Dialect words. A dialect is a variety of a language which prevails in a district: there are, for instance, Lancashire, Dorsetshire, Yorkshire, Norfolk dialects in Britain, Nothern, Midland and Southern dialects in the USA. Dialectal words can be transferred into the common stock (or the basic vocabulary): many frequent words of common use are dialectal in origin, such as girl, one, raid, glamour, car, tram. In works of fiction dialect words are used to render the speech of the characters, to create a realistic effect. II. Words of the formal style fall into two main groups: learned (книжные) words and professional words (terms). 1. Learned words. Learned words include several subdivisions of words: literary, or refined words, poetic words, words used in scientific prose and officialese (штамп, канцеляризм). a) literary or refined words, that often sound foreign: solitude (уединение), felicity (счастье), cordial (=hearty; сердечный). b) poetic words (poetic diction), which have a high-flown, archaic colouring: Alas!, realm [relm] (царство), wroth [rəuθ] (разгневанный), morn (for “morning”), eve (for “evening”), welkin (небосвод). c) words that are used in scientific prose: comprise, compile, experimental. d) officialese: assist (for “help”), proceed (for “go on”), sufficient (for “enough”), inquire (for “ask”), approximately (for “about”). 2. Archaic and obsolete [‘obsəli:t] words stand close to “learned” words, esp. poetic words. They are words which are partially or fully out of circulation and can be found in books only: damsel (for “girl”), yon (там), foe (враг), aught (что-нибудь), chop-house (харчевня, трактир) – lexical archaisms, thou (ты), thy (твой, твое), speaketh (for “you speak”) – grammatical archaisms. Some linguists use the terms “obsolete” and “archaic” as synonyms. Others believe that obsolete words are words which have completely fallen out of use, while archaisms are words which are rare in present usage. Anyway, the boderline between “obsolete” and “archaic” is uncertain. Besides, words very rarely drop out of use forever, the majority of them are found at the periphery of the lexicon and their fate is unpredictable. Words which denote objects and phenomena of the past, which no longer exist, are known as historisms: goblet (кубок), lute (лютня), vizor (забрало), cataphract (кольчуга), childe (чайлд, молодой дворянин). 3. Professional terminology. Every field of modern activity has its specialized vocabulary. There are special terminologies for different sciences, arts and trades. Thus, allegation, barrister, lawsuit, plaintiff are all technical terms of law; bilingual, interdental, descending stepping scale are terms of phonetics. Terms, as a general rule, are monosemantic and have no synonyms. There seems to be no impenetrable wall between terminology and the general language system. Exchange between terminological systems and the common vocabulary is quite normal. For example, many names of diseases, or medical terms, a number of economical, commercial, political, or legal terms are in common usage now: measles, diarrhea, on-line buying, impeachment. III. Basic Vocabulary These words are stylistically neutral and are used by all people both in formal and informal situations, in oral and written communication: head, bread, summer, mother, go, stand, etc. Their meanings are broad, general, they are devoid of connotations. Such words are marked by stability. They denote objects and phenomena of everyday importance and constitute the beginner’s vocabulary. The basic vocabulary and the stylistically marked (formal and informal) vocabulary are interrelated: many basic words have formal and informal counterparts. For example, the neutral words child, baby correspond to the informal words kid, brat and to the formal words infant, babe; the verb kill has a poetic synonym slay and numerous equivalents in slang: waste, get, fix. The following table sums up the description of the stylistic strata of the English vocabulary:
2.Different approaches to the study of lexicology There are two principle approaches in linguistic science to the study of language material : synchronic & diachronic . With regard to Special lexicology the synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as it exists at a given time . It’s Special Descriptive lexicology that deals with the vocabulary & vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time . The diachronic approach in terms of Special lexicology deals with the changes & the development of vocabulary in the coarse of time . It is Special Historical lexicology that deals with the evaluation of the vocabulary units of a language as the time goes by . The two approaches shouldn’t be set one against the other . In fact , they are interconnected & interrelated because every linguistic structure & system exists in a state of constant development so that the synchronic state of a language system is a result of a long process of linguistic evaluation , of its historical development . Closely connected with the Historical lexicology is Contrastive & Comparative lexicology whose aims are to study the correlation between the vocabularies of two or more languages & find out the correspondences between the vocabulary units of the languages under comparison . Lexicology studies various lexical units . They are : morphemes , words , variable word-groups & phraseological units . We proceed from the assumption that the word is the basic unit of the language system , the largest on morphological & the smallest on syntactic plane of linguistic analyses . The word is a structural & semantic entity within the language system . The word as well as any linguistic sign is a two-faced unit possessing both form & content or , to be more exact , sound-form & meaning .
| N 16 1.Connection of lexicology with other linguistic disciplines LG and other branches of science LG and Phonetics. A word is then association of a given group of sounds with the given meaning (tip-top). A word unity is conditioned by a number of phonological units. Phonemes follow each other in a fixed sequence (tip-top)/ the discrimination between words may be based upon stress (‘im’port). Stress also distinguishes compounds from homonymies of the group (blackbird – black bird). Ph-cs helps in the studying of synonyms, homonyms, polysemy. LG and Stylistics. The problem of meaning, connotations, synonymy, functional differention of the vocabulary according to the sphere of communication and some issues. LG and Grammar are connected in the object of their study. Even isolated words bare a definite relation to the grammatical system, because they belong to some part of speech & conform to some lexical, grammatical characteristics of the word class to which they belong. The ties between lexicology and grammar are particularly strong in the sphere of word formation. The characteristic features of English word building, the morphological structure of the English word are depended on the peculiarity of the grammatical system. LG and Social Linguistics SL is the branch of Linguistics dealing with the causal relations between the way a word develops and facts of social life. The changes of the language are due to the linguistic and extra linguistic courses, or to a combination of both. History of language. LG uses information which is provided by the history of language. It studies changes in the word stock (словарный запас), process of language enrichment. LG and Semeiology. Changes of word meanings in the course of language development are studied by Semeiology. LG includes information are compiling (составление) dictionaries. This brunch of LG names lexicography.
2.Characterize types of archaisms in Modern English/ Охарактеризовать типы архаизмов в современном английском языке Archaic and Obsolete (устаревшие) Words stand close to the "learned" words, particularly to the modes of poetic diction. Learned words and archaisms are both asso-ciated with the printed page. Yet, as we have seen, many learned words may also be used in conversational situations. This cannot hap-pen with archaisms, which are invariably restricted to the printed page. These words are moribund, already partly or fully out of circu-lation, rejected by the living language. Their last refuge is in historical novels (whose authors use them to create a particular period atmos-phere) and, of course, in poetry which is rather conservative in its choice of words. Examples of archaisms are: morn (for morning), eve (for evening), moon (for month), damsel (for girl), errant (for wandering, e. g. errant knights), etc. Archaisms are most frequently encountered in poetry, law, science, technology, geography and ritual writing and speech. Their deliberate use can be subdivided into literary archaisms, which seeks to evoke the style of older speech and writing; and lexical archaisms, the use of words no longer in common use. Archaisms are kept alive by these ritual and literary uses and by the study of older literature.
| N 17 1.Characterize slang words and expressions in Modern English/ The Oxford English Dictionary defines slang as "language of a highly colloquial style, considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense." This is not sur-prising, for slang words and idioms are short-lived and very soon either disappear or lose their peculiar colouring and become either colloquial or stylistically neutral lexical units. Following examples: mug (for face), sau-cers, blinkers (for eyes), trap (for mouth, e. g. Keep your trap shut), dogs (for feet), to leg (it) (for to walk). —All these meanings are certainly based on metaphor, yet they strike one as singularly unpoetical. Henry Bradley writes that "Slang sets things in their proper place with a smile. So, to call a hat 'a lid' and a head 'a nut' is amusing because it puts a hat and a pot-lid in the same class". And, we should add, a head and a nut in the same class too. All or most slang words are current words whose meanings have been meta-phorically shifted. Each slang metaphor is rooted in a joke, but not in a kind or amusing joke. This is the criterion for distinguishing slang from colloquialisms: most slang words are metaphors and jocular, often with a coarse, mocking, cynical colouring. Then why do people use slang? For a number of reasons. To be picturesque, arresting, striking and, above all, different from others. To avoid the tedium of outmoded hackneyed "common" words. To demonstrate one's spiritual independence and daring. To sound "mod-ern" and "up-to-date". It doesn't mean that all these aims are achieved by using slang. Nor are they put in so many words by those using slang on the conscious level. The circle of users of slang is more narrow than that of colloquialisms. It is mainly used by the young and uneducated. Yet, slang's colourful and humorous quality makes it catching, so that a considerable part of slang may become accepted by nearly all the groups of speakers.
2.Different points of view on the existence of the word
Word is a basic meaningful unit of language in Russia, in Engl - morphema. Word consist of form and meaning. According to the dictionary definition, word is the smallest unit of speech which has meaning then is taken by itself. W – main linguist unit of LG. It is separate and definitely formed. W denote objective things of reality. And yet, the word should be and can be defined, and the definition should be based on the most important characteristics of the word which are as follows: 1. The word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication. So the word can be defined as a unit of communication. 2. The word is the total of the sounds which compose it. 3. The word possesses both external and internal characteristics. a) By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure. For example, in the word “post-impressionists” the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-, im-, the root “press”, the noun-forming sufixes –ion, -ist, and the grammatical suffix of plurality –s. b) By the internal structure is understood the semantic structure of the word, or its meaning. Meaning is the word’s main aspect and it is only due to their meanings that words can serve the purposes of human communication. c) The word possesses both external, formal and internal, semantic unity. Formal unity implies that no other elements can be inserted between the component morphemes of the word which are permanently linked together (a blackbird vs a black bird – a black night bird). The word’s semantic unity consists in the fact that it conveys only one concept. For example, the word “blackbird” conveys only one concept: the type of bird. The word-group “a black bird” conveys two concepts: a colour and a a type of animal. 4. The word can be used in different grammatical forms. All that has been said about the word can be summed up as follows: the word is a unit used for purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, characterised by formal and semantic unity and a capacity for grammatical employment.
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N 18 1.Principal characteristics of the word/ Основные характеристики слова Word is a basic meaningful unit of language in Russia, in Engl - morphema. Word consist of form and meaning. According to the dictionary definition, word is the smallest unit of speech which has meaning then is taken by itself. W – main linguist unit of LG. It is separate and definitely formed. W denote objective things of reality. And yet, the word should be and can be defined, and the definition should be based on the most important characteristics of the word which are as follows: 1. The word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication. So the word can be defined as a unit of communication. 2. The word is the total of the sounds which compose it. 3. The word possesses both external and internal characteristics. a) By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure. For example, in the word “post-impressionists” the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-, im-, the root “press”, the noun-forming sufixes –ion, -ist, and the grammatical suffix of plurality –s. b) By the internal structure is understood the semantic structure of the word, or its meaning. Meaning is the word’s main aspect and it is only due to their meanings that words can serve the purposes of human communication. c) The word possesses both external, formal and internal, semantic unity. Formal unity implies that no other elements can be inserted between the component morphemes of the word which are permanently linked together (a blackbird vs a black bird – a black night bird). The word’s semantic unity consists in the fact that it conveys only one concept. For example, the word “blackbird” conveys only one concept: the type of bird. The word-group “a black bird” conveys two concepts: a colour and a a type of animal. 4. The word can be used in different grammatical forms. All that has been said about the word can be summed up as follows: the word is a unit used for purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, characterised by formal and semantic unity and a capacity for grammatical employment. 2.Characterize vulgarisms and their function in Modern English/ Охарактеризовать вульгаризмы и их функции в современном английском языке vulgarism (from Latin vulgus, the "mean folk"), also called scurrility, is a colloquialism of an unpleasant action or unrefined character, which substitutes a coarse, indecorous word where the context might lead the reader to expect a more refined expression. For example the term "the tits on Botticelli's Venus" is a vulgarism. Vulgarisms are assumed to be associated with low and coarse motivations that were stereotypically supposed to be naturally endemic to the 'meaner classes', who were not moved by 'higher' motives like fame for posterity and honor among peers—motives that were alleged to move the literate classes. Thus the concept of vulgarism carries cultural freight from the outset, and from some social and religious perspectives it does not genuinely exist, or—and perhaps this amounts to the same thing—ought not to exist. More broadly, vulgarity generally has a social and moral component. Whether deliberate or accidental, the substitution of a commonplace word that is not a euphemism draws attention to what may be a speaker's high-toned moral superiority or sophistication but a fatal flaw in the usage often reveals that the speaker's ambitions are not based in reality. Vulgarisms therefore highlight the pretentious, showing people that lay unwarranted claim to social graces and education and attempt to inflate their status through the use of language they either cannot control or do not understand.[citation For example: smeller (a nose), old bean (a familiar form of address), nigger (a black)
| N 19 1. Characterize literary words and expressions and state their function in Modern English/ 2. Basic meaningful units of language/ Основные значимые единицы языка It was pointed out above that Lexicology studies various lexical units: morphemes, words, variable word-groups and phraseological units. We proceed from the assumption that the word is the basic unit of language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis. The word is a structural and semantic entity within the language system. It should be pointed out that there is another approach to the concept of the basic language unit. The criticism of this viewpoint cannot be discussed within the framework of the present study. Suffice it to say that here we consistently proceed from the concept of the word as the basic unit in all the branches of Lexicology. Both words and phraseological units are names for things, namely the names of actions, objects, qualities, etc. Unlike words proper, however, phraseological units are wordgroups consisting of two or more words whose combination is integrated as a unit with a specialised meaning of the whole. To illustrate, the lexical or to be more exact the vocabulary units tattle, wall, taxi are words denoting various objects of the outer world; the vocabulary units black frost, red tape, a skeleton in the cupboard are phraseological units: each is a word-group with a specialised meaning of the whole, namely black frost is ‘frost without snow or rime’, red tape denotes bureaucratic methods, a skeleton in the cupboard refers to a fact of which a family is ashamed and which it tries to hide. Although the ordinary ’speaker is acutely word-conscious and usually finds no difficulty either in isolating words from an utterance or in identifying them in the process of communication, the precise linguistic definition of a word is far from easy to state; no exhaustive definition of the word has yet been given by linguists. The word as well as any linguistic sign is a two-facet unit possessing both form and content or, to be more exact, soundform and meaning. Neither can exist without the other. For example, [θimbl] is a word within the framework of the English language primarily because it has the lexical meaning — ‘a small cap of metal, plastic, etc. worn on the finger in sewing.. .'1 (Russ. наперсток) and the grammatical meaning of the Common case, singular. In other languages it is not a word, but a meaningless sound-cluster. When used in actual speech the word undergoes certain modification and functions in one of its forms. The system showing a word in all its word-forms is called its paradigm.2 The lexical meaning оf а word is the same throughout the paradigm, i.e. all the word-forms of one and the same word are lexically identical. The grammatical meaning varies from one form to another (cf. to take, takes, took, taking or singer, singer’s, singers, singers’). Therefore, when we speak of the word singer or the word take as used in actual utterances (cf., His brother is a well-known singer or I wonder who has taken my umbrella) we use the term word conventionally, because what is manifested in the speech event is not the word as a whole but one of its forms which is identified as belonging to one definite paradigm. There are two approaches to the paradigm: (a) as a system of forms of one word it reveals the differences and relationships between them; (b) in abstraction from concrete words it is treated as a pattern on which every word of one part of speech models its forms, thus serving to distinguish one part of speech from another. Cf. the noun paradigm — ( ), -’s, -s, -s’ as distinct from that of the regular verb — ( ) ,-s, -ed1, -ed2, -ing, etc.1 Besides the grammatical forms of words, i.e. word-forms, some scholars distinguish lexical varieties which they term variants of words. Distinction is made between two basic groups of variants of words. In actual speech a word or to be more exact a polysemantic word is used in, one of its meanings. Such a word in one of its meanings is described as lexico-semantic variant. Thus Group One comprises lexico-semantic variants, i.e. polysemantic words in each of their meanings, as exemplified by the meaning of the verb to learn in word-groups like to learn at school, cf. to learn about (of) smth, etc. Group Two comprises phonetic and morphological variants. As examples of phonetic variants the pronouncing variants of the adverbs often and again can be given, cf. ['o:fn] and ['o:ftэn], [э'gein] and [э'gen]. The two variant forms of the past indefinite tense of verbs like to learn illustrate morphological variants, cf. learned [-d] and learnt [-t]. Parallel formations of the geologic — geological, phonetic — phonetical type also enter the group of morphological variants.2 It may be easily observed that the most essential feature of variants of words of both groups is that a slight change in the morphemic or phonemic composition of a word is not connected with any modification of its meaning and, vice versa, a change in meaning is not followed by any structural changes, either morphemic or phonetic. Like word-forms variants of words are identified in the process of communication as making up one and the same word. Thus, within the language system the word exists as a system and unity of all its forms and variants.
| 1.Characterize free and bound forms in English/ 2.Main types of set expressions in Modern English/
1.Different approaches to classification of set expressions/ Различные подходы к классификации множества выражений
2.Principal characteristics of the word/ Основные характеристики слова
Word is a basic meaningful unit of language in Russia, in Engl - morphema. Word consist of form and meaning. According to the dictionary definition, word is the smallest unit of speech which has meaning then is taken by itself. W – main linguist unit of LG. It is separate and definitely formed. W denote objective things of reality. And yet, the word should be and can be defined, and the definition should be based on the most important characteristics of the word which are as follows: 1. The word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication. So the word can be defined as a unit of communication. 2. The word is the total of the sounds which compose it. 3. The word possesses both external and internal characteristics. a) By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure. For example, in the word “post-impressionists” the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-, im-, the root “press”, the noun-forming sufixes –ion, -ist, and the grammatical suffix of plurality –s. b) By the internal structure is understood the semantic structure of the word, or its meaning. Meaning is the word’s main aspect and it is only due to their meanings that words can serve the purposes of human communication. c) The word possesses both external, formal and internal, semantic unity. Formal unity implies that no other elements can be inserted between the component morphemes of the word which are permanently linked together (a blackbird vs a black bird – a black night bird). The word’s semantic unity consists in the fact that it conveys only one concept. For example, the word “blackbird” conveys only one concept: the type of bird. The word-group “a black bird” conveys two concepts: a colour and a a type of animal. 4. The word can be used in different grammatical forms. All that has been said about the word can be summed up as follows: the word is a unit used for purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, characterised by formal and semantic unity and a capacity for grammatical employment. | 1.Different types of word-building in English/ Различные типы словообразования в английском Word formation (словообразование) It’s a process of creating new words from material available in the language after a certain structural and semantic formulas and pattern, forming words by combining root & affix morphemes. 2 types of word formation: 1) Compounding (словосложение) 2) Word – derivation (словообразование) Within the types further distinction may be made between the ways of forming words. The basic way of forming words is word-derivation affixation and conversion apart from this shortening and a number of minor ways of formal words such as back-forming, blending, sound imitation are traditionally referred to formation. Different types of word formation: Affixation is the formation of new words by means of suffixes and prefixes to stems\basis. Affixes may be grouped 1) according to their linguistic origin. We distinguish affixes of Germanic origin (full, less), of Romanic origin (ion), of Greek origin (ise, izm); 2) according to the parts of speech. We distinguish noun forming, adj. forming and verb forming affixes; 3) according to semantic functions. They may denote persons, quality, negation. Many suffixes originated from separate words: hood originated for the noun hood, which meant state or condition; full – полный (adj. In O.E) now it is suffix. Suffixes may change the part of speech: critic (al). All suffixes are divided into lexical and grammatical. Lexical suffixes build new word. Productive affixes. For ex: read-readable, happy-happiness, act-actor. Grammatical suffixes change the grammatical form of a word. Often used to create neologisms and nonce-words (I don’t like Sunday evenings: I feel so mondayish). For ex: finish-finished, say-says, rose-roses. Some productive suffixes: Noun forming – er, ing, is, ist, ance Adj – forming – y, ish, ed, able, less Adv – forming – ly Verb – forming - Ize, /ise, ate Prefixies - Un, die, re Conversion (zero derivation) it is one of the major ways of enriching EV & referrers to the numerous cases of phonetic identity of word forms of 2 words belonging to different part of speech.. The new word has a meaning which differs from that of original one though it can >< be associated with it. nurse (noun) to nurse – to feed A certain stem is used for the formation of a categorically different word without a derivative element being added. Bag – to bag, Back – to back , Bottle – to bottle This specific pattern is very productive in English The most popular types are noun →verb or verb→noun To take off – a take off Conversion can be total or partial. Partial: the then president (тогдашний). An adverb is used as an adjective, only in this particular context. Total: work – to work Conversion may be the result of shading of English endings. The historical changes may be briefly outlined as follows: in O.E. a verb and a noun of the same root were distinguished by their endings. For ex: the verb ‘to love’ had a form (Old Eng.) ‘lufian’. This verb had personal conjunctions. The noun ‘love’ had the form ‘lufu’ with different case endings. But in the course of time, the personal and case endings were lost. There are numerous pairs of words (e. g. love, n. — to love, v.; work, n. — to work, v.; drink, n. — to drink, v., etc.) which did, not occur due to conversion but coincided as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of endings, simplification of stems) when before that they had different forms (e. g. O. E. lufu, n. — lufian, v.). The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf, to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor, to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon, and very many others. Nouns are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This is the queerest do I''ve ever come across. Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He has still plenty of go at his age. Go — energy), make, run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move, etc. Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough (e. g. We decided to rough it in the tents as the weather was warm), etc. Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the following examples show: to down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n, (as in the like of me and the like of you). Compounding & word comparison. Compound words are made of 2 derivational stems. The types of structure of CW: neutral, morphological &syntactic. In neutral compound the process is released without any linking elements sunflower. There are three types of neutral compounds simple compounds went a compound consist of a simple affixes stems. Derivate/ derivational compound - has affixes babysitter. Contracted – has a shorten stems. TV-set Morphological C – few in number. This type is non productive. Represented by words, where 2 stems are combined by a linking vowel/ consonant Anglo-Saxon, statesman, craftsmanship. Syntactic C – formed of segments of speech preserving articles, prepositions, adverbs. Mother-in-law Reduplication. New word are made by stem ether without any phonetic changes Bye-Bye or variation of a root vowel or consonant ping-pong Shortening. There are 2 ways of producing them: 1. The word is formed from the syllable of the original word which in term may loose its beginning –phone, its ending vac (vacation) or both fridge. 2. The word is formed from the initial letter of a word group BB, bf – boyfriend. Acronyms are shorten words but read as one UNO [ju:nou] TYPES OF WF Sound imitation – words are made by imitating different links of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds…bark – лаять, mew – мяукать…some names of animals, birds & insects are made by SI coo-coo – кукушка, crow – ворона. To glide, to slip are supposed to convey the very sound of the smooth easy movement over a slippery surface. Back formation a verb is produced from a noun by subtraction (вычитание) bagger – to bag, babysitter – to babysit Blending - Is blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word), combining letters/sounds they have in common as a connecting element. Smoke + fog = smog, Breakfast + lunch = brunch, Smoke + haze = smaze (дымка) - addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of two words combined by a conjunction “and” smog → smoke & fog - blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive phrase, where the first element serves as modifier of a second. Positron – positive electron, Medicare – medical care Borrowings. Contemporary English is a unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary. In the comparison with other languages English possesses great richness of vocabulary. All languages are mixtures to a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English vocabulary is unique in this respect. A brief look on various historical strata of the English vocabulary: 1) through cultural contacts with Romans partly already on the continent and all through the influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words entered the language. Their origin is no longer felt by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint, mustard, school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel, bishop. The same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10th century) that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary. It means that their frequency is very high. They, their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take... They partly supersede the number of OE words OE heofon – heaven (sky) Niman – take Steorfan – die A more radical change & profound influence on the English vocabulary occurred on 1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15th cent., a great number of French words were adopted. They belong to the areas of court, church, law, state. Virtue, religion, parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour... The influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15th cent., but continued up to the 17th cent. Many French borrowings retained their original pronunciation & stress Champagne, ballet, machine, garage... Separate, attitude, constitute, introduce... Adjectives in English – arrogant, important, patient Sometimes with their derivatives: Demonstrative – demonstration Separate – separation 17-18 cc. due to the establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French. Italian: libretto, violin, opera Spanish: hurricane, tomato, tobacco Dutch: yacht, dog, landscape French: bouquet, buffet From the point of view of their etymology formal words are normally of classical Romanic origin, informal – Anglo-Saxon. Nowadays many Americanisms become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic travel & the influence of broadcast media. Even in London (Heathrow airport) “baggage” instead of “luggage” The present day English vocabulary is from being homogeneous 2.Differences between free word combinations, phraseological units (set expressions) and compound words/ Различия между свободными словосочетаниями, фразеологическими единицами (устойчивые выражения) и сложными словами Free word combinations consist of 2 or more notion words and serve to express any complex concept. They are created according to the grammatical rules of any language. Ex: black cat = 2 nouns. They are created in the process of speech. They are not already made units. Set expressions – they are preproduced. There no freedom in the use of the component of set expr. They can be describe as idiomatic units. In the sentence they perform as a single syntactic unit. Stability of set expression should be considered as one of main criterion. Set expressions should not be confused with semi fix combination (полуустойч.выр-я). Ex: go to school, go to university. Phraseological units, or idioms, as they are called by most west-ern scholars, represent what can probably be described as the most picturesque, colourful and expressive part of the language's vocabulary (Ex: dark horse). The task of distinguishing between free word-groups and phraseological units is further compli-cated by the existence of a great number of marginal cases, the so-called semi-fixed or semi-free word-groups, also called non-phraseological word-groups which share with phraseological units their structural stability but lack their semantic unity and figurative-ness (e. g. to go to school, to go by bus, to commit suicide). There are two major criteria for distinguishing between phrase-ological units and free word-groups: semantic and structural. A phraseological unit is a stable word-group characterised by a completely or partially transferred meaning. Structural invariability is an essential feature of phraseological units. The vocabulary of any developed language consists of words and word equivalents which are not created by the speaker but used as ready‑made units. Such units are primarily characterized by the contradiction which exists between the semantic integrity of the whole and the formal independence of its parts. It is very difficult to establish a sharp boundary between free word‑combinations which are generated by the speaker in the process of speech and set expressions used as ready‑made. As a rule, it can be shown that there are different degrees of ‘setness’, or different degrees of restrictions. This is the object of investigation of phraseology – the branch of linguistics which studies the ways of bringing words together in the flow of speech. In this section of the book we shall focus on some issues that have been on the periphery of phraseology in recent years. Their importance lies in their topicality rather than in the position they hold in phraseological studies. I refer to investigations aimed at discovering prosodic modulations which form part of the expression plane of ‘multi‑word units’ that display various degrees of semantic opaqueness, namely: – idioms proper (e.g. to put the cart before the horse, a skeleton in the cupboard, to kill two birds with one stone, etc.); – phraseological units, that is invariable word‑combinations (e.g. as a matter of course, to take for granted, etc.); – restricted collocations, that is word‑combinations which allow some substitution, but where is still some arbitrary limitation on choice (e.g. to run a company, not *to conduct a company; to fix (or set) a price, but not *to stick a price, etc.); – commonplace free collocations (green grass, heavy box, to run quickly, to speak loudly, etc.); – innovative or nonce collocations, that is word‑combinations which demonstrate practically unlimited combinatorial possibilities of words (e.g. green ideas, to wear tea, etc.). As every sentence of English has associated with it an appropriate prosodic structure, which is determined not only by the underlying syntactic bonds but also by semantic properties of its lexical components, we can say that recurrent multi‑word units as word equivalents cannot but account for some prosodic modulations accompanying an utterance. | ||||||||
CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE BORROWED ASPECT There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings, morphemic borrowings. Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages, they are called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning. Then they undergo assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of the borrowing language. In some cases the spelling is changed. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed. Such words as: labour, travel, table, chair, people are phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenklatura, sputnik are phonetic borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian etc. Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme ) translations of some foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units, «to take the bull by the horns» (Latin), «fair sex» ( French), «living space» (German) etc. Some translation loans appeared in English from Latin already in the Old English period, e.g. Sunday (solis dies). There are translation loans from the languages of Indians, such as: «pipe of peace», «pale-faced», from German «masterpiece», «homesickness», «superman». Semantic borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the language is borrowed. It can happen when we have two relative languages which have common words with different meanings, e.g. there are semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning «to live» for the word «to dwell’ which in Old English had the meaning «to wander». Or else the meaning «дар» , «подарок» for the word «gift» which in Old English had the meaning «выкуп за жену». Semantic borrowing can appear when an English word was borrowed into some other language, developed there a new meaning and this new meaning was borrowed back into English, e.g. «brigade» was borrowed into Russian and formed the meaning «a working collective«,»бригада». This meaning was borrowed back into English as a Russian borrowing. The same is true of the English word «pioneer». Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language, e.g. we can find a lot of Romanic affixes in the English word-building system, that is why there are a lot of words - hybrids in English where different morphemes have different origin, e.g. «goddess», «beautiful» etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF ASSIMILATION
The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors: a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier, b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker, c) how often the borrowing is used in the language, the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated, d) how long the word lives in the language, the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is. Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into: completely assimilated, partly assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms). Completely assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words in the language, cf the French word «sport» and the native word «start». Completely assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs, e.g. correct -corrected. Completely assimilated nouns form their plural by means of s-inflexion, e.g. gate- gates. In completely assimilated French words the stress has been shifted from the last syllable to the last but one. Semantic assimilation of borrowed words depends on the words existing in the borrowing language, as a rule, a borrowed word does not bring all its meanings into the borrowing language, if it is polysemantic, e.g. the Russian borrowing «sputnik» is used in English only in one of its meanings. Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups: a) borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, e.g. sari, sombrero, taiga, kvass etc. b) borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek retain their plural forms (bacillus - bacilli, phenomenon - phenomena, datum -data, genius - genii etc. c) borrowings non-assimilated phonetically. Here belong words with the initial sounds /v/ and /z/, e.g. voice, zero. In native words these voiced consonants are used only in the intervocal position as allophones of sounds /f/ and /s/ ( loss - lose, life - live ). Some Scandinavian borrowings have consonants and combinations of consonants which were not palatalized, e.g. /sk/ in the words: sky, skate, ski etc (in native words we have the palatalized sounds denoted by the digraph «sh», e.g. shirt); sounds /k/ and /g/ before front vowels are not palatalized e.g. girl, get, give, kid, kill, kettle. In native words we have palatalization , e.g. German, child. Some French borrowings have retained their stress on the last syllable, e.g. police, cartoon. Some French borrowings retain special combinations of sounds, e.g. /a:3/ in the words : camouflage, bourgeois, some of them retain the combination of sounds /wa:/ in the words: memoir, boulevard. d) borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically, e.g. in Greak borrowings «y» can be spelled in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym), «ph» denotes the sound /f/ (phoneme, morpheme), «ch» denotes the sound /k/(chemistry, chaos),«ps» denotes the sound /s/ (psychology). Latin borrowings retain their polisyllabic structure, have double consonants, as a rule, the final consonant of the prefix is assimilated with the initial consonant of the stem, (accompany, affirmative). French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, e.g. consonants «p», «t», «s» are not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet, coup, debris), Specifically French combination of letters «eau» /ou/ can be found in the borrowings : beau, chateau, troussaeu. Some of digraphs retain their French pronunciation: ‘ch’ is pronounced as /sh/, e.g. chic, parachute, ‘qu’ is pronounced as /k/ e.g. bouquet, «ou» is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. rouge; some letters retain their French pronunciation, e.g. «i» is pronounced as /i:/, e,g, chic, machine; «g» is pronounced as /3/, e.g. rouge. Modern German borrowings also have some peculiarities in their spelling: common nouns are spelled with a capital letter e.g. Autobahn, Lebensraum; some vowels and digraphs retain their German pronunciation, e.g. «a» is pronounced as /a:/ (Dictat), «u» is pronounced as /u:/ (Kuchen), «au» is pronounced as /au/ (Hausfrau), «ei» is pronounced as /ai/ (Reich); some consonants are also pronounced in the German way, e.g. «s» before a vowel is pronounced as /z/ (Sitskrieg), «v» is pronounced as /f/ (Volkswagen), «w» is pronounced as /v/ , «ch» is pronounced as /h/ (Kuchen). Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are borrowings which are used by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, e.g. addio (Italian), tete-a-tete (French), dolce vita (Italian), duende (Spanish), an homme a femme (French), gonzo (Italian) etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE LANGUAGE FROM WHICH THEY WERE BORROWED
English vocabulary can be divided into 2 parts: 70% of borrowings in English language, 30% of native words. Borrowings usually take place under 2 circumstances: 1) when people have a direct contact with another people; 2) when there is a cultural need to borrow a word from another languages. ROMANIC BORROWINGS Latin borrowings. Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc. Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century. At this time the Latin alphabet was borrowed which ousted the Runic alphabet. These borrowings are usually called classical borrowings. Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem. Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at the time. These words were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto etc. Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English as well. Mostly they are words formed with the help of Latin and Greek morphemes. There are quite a lot of them in medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry (acid, valency, alkali), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane, airdrome), in politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics) . In philology most of terms are of Greek origin (homonym, archaism, lexicography).
French borrowings The influence of French on the English spelling. The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them came into English during the Norman conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of English but also its spelling, because documents were written by French scribes as the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French. Runic letters remaining in English after the Latin alphabet was borrowed were substituted by Latin letters and combinations of letters, e.g. «v» was introduced for the voiced consonant /v/ instead of «f» in the intervocal position /lufian - love/, the digraph «ch» was introduced to denote the sound /ch/ instead of the letter «c» / chest/ before front vowels where it had been palatalized, the digraph «sh» was introduced instead of the combination «sc» to denote the sound /sh/ /ship/, the digraph «th» was introduced instead of the Runic letters «0» and « » /this, thing/, the letter «y» was introduced instead of the Runic letter «3» to denote the sound /j/ /yet/, the digraph «qu» substituted the combination «cw» to denote the combination of sounds /kw/ /queen/, the digraph «ou» was introduced to denote the sound /u:/ /house/ (The sound /u:/ was later on diphthongized and is pronounced /au/ in native words and fully assimilated borrowings). As it was difficult for French scribes to copy English texts they substituted the letter «u» before «v», «m», «n» and the digraph «th» by the letter «o» to escape the combination of many vertical lines /«sunu» - «son», luvu» - «love»/. Borrowing of French words. There are the following semantic groups of French borrowings: a) words relating to government : administer, empire, state, government; b) words relating to military affairs: army, war, banner, soldier, battle; c) words relating to jury: advocate, petition, inquest, sentence, barrister; d) words relating to fashion: luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat, embroidery; e) words relating to jewelry: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl ; f) words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, to roast, to stew. Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups of these borrowings: a) words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance, piruette, vaudeville; b) words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre; c) words relating to buildings and furniture: entresol, chateau, bureau; d) words relating to food and cooking: ragout, cuisine.
Italian borrowings. Cultural and trade relations between Italy and England brought many Italian words into English. The earliest Italian borrowing came into English in the 14-th century, it was the word «bank» /from the Italian «banko» - «bench»/. Italian money-lenders and money-changers sat in the streets on benches. When they suffered losses they turned over their benches, it was called «banco rotta» from which the English word «bankrupt» originated. In the 17-th century some geological terms were borrowed : volcano, granite, bronze, lava. At the same time some political terms were borrowed: manifesto, bulletin. But mostly Italian is famous by its influence in music and in all Indo-European languages musical terms were borrowed from Italian : alto, baritone, basso, tenor, falsetto, solo, duet, trio, quartet, quintet, opera, operette, libretto, piano, violin. Among the 20-th century Italian borrowings we can mention : gazette, incognitto, autostrada, fiasco, fascist, diletante, grotesque, graffitto etc.
Spanish borrowings. Spanish borrowings came into English mainly through its American variant. There are the following semantic groups of them: a) trade terms: cargo, embargo; b) names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rumba, habanera, guitar; c) names of vegetables and fruit: tomato, potato, tobbaco, cocoa, banana, ananas, apricot etc.
GERMANIC BORROWINGS
English belongs to the Germanic group of languages and there are borrowings from Scandinavian, German and Holland languages, though their number is much less than borrowings from Romanic languages. Scandinavian borrowings. By the end of the Old English period English underwent a strong influence of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles. Scandinavians belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmen and their languages had much in common. As the result of this conquest there are about 700 borrowings from Scandinavian into English. Scandinavians and Englishmen had the same way of life,their cultural level was the same, they had much in common in their literature therefore there were many words in these languages which were almost identical, e.g. ON OE Modern E syster sweoster sister fiscr fisc fish felagi felawe fellow However there were also many words in the two languages which were different, and some of them were borrowed into English , such nouns as: bull, cake, egg, kid, knife, skirt, window etc, such adjectives as: flat, ill, happy, low, odd, ugly, wrong, such verbs as : call, die, guess, get, give, scream and many others. Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which happens very seldom, such as : same, both, till, fro, though, and pronominal forms with «th»: they, them, their. Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs which did not exist in Old English, at the same time some prefixed verbs came out of usage, e.g. ofniman, beniman. Phrasal verbs are now highly productive in English /take off, give in etc/. German borrowings. There are some 800 words borrowed from German into English. Some of them have classical roots, e.g. in some geological terms, such as: cobalt, bismuth, zink, quarts, gneiss, wolfram. There were also words denoting objects used in everyday life which were borrowed from German: iceberg, lobby, rucksack, Kindergarten etc. In the period of the Second World War the following words were borrowed: Volkssturm, Luftwaffe, SS-man, Bundeswehr, gestapo, gas chamber and many others. After the Second World War the following words were borrowed: Berufsverbot, Volkswagen etc.
Holland borrowings. Holland and England have constant interrelations for many centuries and more than 2000 Holland borrowings were borrowed into English. Most of them are nautical terms and were mainly borrowed in the 14-th century, such as: freight, skipper, pump, keel, dock, reef, deck, leak and many others.
Besides two main groups of borrowings (Romanic and Germanic) there are also borrowings from a lot of other languages. We shall speak about Russian borrowings, borrowings from the language which belongs to Slavoninc languages. Russian borrowings. There were constant contacts between England and Russia and they borrowed words from one language into the other. Among early Russian borrowings there are mainly words connected with trade relations, such as: rouble, copeck, pood, sterlet, vodka, sable, and also words relating to nature, such as: taiga, tundra, steppe etc. There is also a large group of Russian borrowings which came into English through Rushian literature of the 19-th century, such as : Narodnik, moujik, duma, zemstvo. volost, ukase etc, and also words which were formed in Russian with Latin roots, such as: nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist etc. After the Great October Revolution many new words appeared in Russian connected with the new political system, new culture, and many of them were borrowed into English, such as: collectivization. udarnik, Komsomol etc and also translation loans, such as: shock worker, collective farm, five-year plan etc. One more group of Russian borrowings is connected with perestroika, such as: glasnost, nomenklatura, apparatchik etc.
ETYMOLOGICAL DOUBLETS
Sometimes a word is borrowed twice from the same language. As the result, we have two different words with different spellings and meanings but historically they come back to one and the same word. Such words are called etymological doublets. In English there are some groups of them: Latino-French doublets. Latin English from Latin English from French uncia inch ounce moneta mint money camera camera chamber
Franco-French doublets doublets borrowed from different dialects of French. Norman Paris canal channel captain chieftain catch chaise Scandinavian-English doublets Scandinavian English skirt shirt scabby shabby There are also etymological doublets which were borrowed from the same language during different historical periods, such as French doublets: gentil - любезный, благородный, etymological doublets are: gentle - мягкий, вежливый and genteel - благородный. From the French word gallant etymological doublets are : ‘gallant - храбрый and ga’llant - галантный, внимательный. Sometimes etymological doublets are the result of borrowing different grammatical forms of the same word, e.g. the Comparative degree of Latin «super» was «superior» which was borrowed into English with the meaning «high in some quality or rank». The Superlative degree (Latin «supremus»)in English «supreme» with the meaning «outstanding», «prominent». So «superior» and «supreme» are etymological doublets.
| 1. Main types of set expressions in Modern English/ 2.Characterize the colloquial English vocabulary/ colloquialisms are the least exclusive: they are used by everybody, and their sphere of communication is comparatively wide, at least of literary colloquial words. These are informal words that are used in eve-ryday conversational speech both by cultivated and uneducated people of all age groups. The sphere of communication of literary colloquial words also includes the printed page, which shows that the term "colloquial" is somewhat inaccurate. Words of the informal style include colloquial words, slang and dialect words. 1. Colloquial words. Colloquial words are subdivided into a) literary b) familiar and c) low colloquial words. a. Literary colloquiallisms are used in everyday conversational speech both by cultivated and uneducated people: kid (for “child”), pal, chum (for “friend”), hi, hello, zip (for “zip fastener”), exam, fridge, flu. b. Familiar colloquial words are used mostly by the young and the semi-educated: doc (doctor), ta-ta (good-bye), shut up, beat it (go away). c. The low colloquial group is formed by obscene, vulgar, swear words used mostly in the speech of uncultivated people. Colloquial words should not be used under formal circamstances, in compositions and reports.
| N 24 1. Various stylistic layers of the English vocabulary In different situations we use different kinds of words to express our thoughts. There are formal and informal situations, and acordingly, formal and informal words and styles. An example of a formal situation is a lecture, a speech in court, a formal letter, professional communication. An example of an informal situation is a friendly talk, an intimate letter. So, all words are divided into two main groups: 1) words of the formal style and 2) words of the informal style. Besides, one more group is constituted by basic vocabulary units, which do not belong to any of the above-mentioned groups. I. Words of the informal style include colloquial words, slang and dialect words. 1. Colloquial words. Colloquial words are subdivided into a) literary b) familiar and c) low colloquial words. a. Literary colloquiallisms are used in everyday conversational speech both by cultivated and uneducated people: kid (for “child”), pal, chum (for “friend”), hi, hello, zip (for “zip fastener”), exam, fridge, flu. b. Familiar colloquial words are used mostly by the young and the semi-educated: doc (doctor), ta-ta (good-bye), shut up, beat it (go away). c. The low colloquial group is formed by obscene, vulgar, swear words used mostly in the speech of uncultivated people. Colloquial words should not be used under formal circamstances, in compositions and reports. 2. Slang words. All or most slang words are metaphores rooted in a joke: nuts (for “heads”), mugs (for “faces”), flippers (ласты) (for “hands”), etc. Slang is mainly used by the young and uneducated and helps the speakers dissosiate themselves from others. In the course of time slang words either disappear or become neutral lexical units (slang is colourful, humourous and catching and may be accepted by all the groups of speakers). 3. Dialect words. A dialect is a variety of a language which prevails in a district: there are, for instance, Lancashire, Dorsetshire, Yorkshire, Norfolk dialects in Britain, Nothern, Midland and Southern dialects in the USA. Dialectal words can be transferred into the common stock (or the basic vocabulary): many frequent words of common use are dialectal in origin, such as girl, one, raid, glamour, car, tram. In works of fiction dialect words are used to render the speech of the characters, to create a realistic effect. II. Words of the formal style fall into two main groups: learned (книжные) words and professional words (terms). 1. Learned words. Learned words include several subdivisions of words: literary, or refined words, poetic words, words used in scientific prose and officialese (штамп, канцеляризм). a) literary or refined words, that often sound foreign: solitude (уединение), felicity (счастье), cordial (=hearty; сердечный). b) poetic words (poetic diction), which have a high-flown, archaic colouring: Alas!, realm [relm] (царство), wroth [rəuθ] (разгневанный), morn (for “morning”), eve (for “evening”), welkin (небосвод). c) words that are used in scientific prose: comprise, compile, experimental. d) officialese: assist (for “help”), proceed (for “go on”), sufficient (for “enough”), inquire (for “ask”), approximately (for “about”). 2. Archaic and obsolete [‘obsəli:t] words stand close to “learned” words, esp. poetic words. They are words which are partially or fully out of circulation and can be found in books only: damsel (for “girl”), yon (там), foe (враг), aught (что-нибудь), chop-house (харчевня, трактир) – lexical archaisms, thou (ты), thy (твой, твое), speaketh (for “you speak”) – grammatical archaisms. Some linguists use the terms “obsolete” and “archaic” as synonyms. Others believe that obsolete words are words which have completely fallen out of use, while archaisms are words which are rare in present usage. Anyway, the boderline between “obsolete” and “archaic” is uncertain. Besides, words very rarely drop out of use forever, the majority of them are found at the periphery of the lexicon and their fate is unpredictable. Words which denote objects and phenomena of the past, which no longer exist, are known as historisms: goblet (кубок), lute (лютня), vizor (забрало), cataphract (кольчуга), childe (чайлд, молодой дворянин). 3. Professional terminology. Every field of modern activity has its specialized vocabulary. There are special terminologies for different sciences, arts and trades. Thus, allegation, barrister, lawsuit, plaintiff are all technical terms of law; bilingual, interdental, descending stepping scale are terms of phonetics. Terms, as a general rule, are monosemantic and have no synonyms. There seems to be no impenetrable wall between terminology and the general language system. Exchange between terminological systems and the common vocabulary is quite normal. For example, many names of diseases, or medical terms, a number of economical, commercial, political, or legal terms are in common usage now: measles, diarrhea, on-line buying, impeachment. III. Basic Vocabulary These words are stylistically neutral and are used by all people both in formal and informal situations, in oral and written communication: head, bread, summer, mother, go, stand, etc. Their meanings are broad, general, they are devoid of connotations. Such words are marked by stability. They denote objects and phenomena of everyday importance and constitute the beginner’s vocabulary. The basic vocabulary and the stylistically marked (formal and informal) vocabulary are interrelated: many basic words have formal and informal counterparts. For example, the neutral words child, baby correspond to the informal words kid, brat and to the formal words infant, babe; the verb kill has a poetic synonym slay and numerous equivalents in slang: waste, get, fix. The following table sums up the description of the stylistic strata of the English vocabulary:
2. Different approaches to classification of set expressions/
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1. Characterize sub-groups of the literary layer of English 2. Differences between territorial and social dialects of Modern English
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