18. The newspaper functional style

Newspaper style may be defined as a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community as a separate linguistic unity that serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader.

Purpose of communication: to inform and instruct the reader. Brief, informative, effective presentation of info. Facts+ opinions.

Stylistic peculiarities. Graphical features: wide use of graphical means (capitalization, special fonts, hyphenation, multiplication, spacing)

Lexical: 1. special political and economic terms 2. newspaper clichés and special headlinese language 3. abbreviations 4. neologisms and coinages.

Syntactical: 1. complex s-s 2. passive constructions 3. infinitive, participial, gerundial constructions 4. attributive constructions (several nouns at a stretch) 5. specific word order (who- what- why – how- where- when).

Ex 1 . Socialism, constitution, president, apartheid, by-election,  General Assembly, gross output, per capital production.

Ex 2. public, people, progressive, nation-wide, unity, peace.

Ex 3 vital issue, pressing problem, informed sources, danger of war, to escalate a war, war hysteria, overwhelming majority, amid stormy applause Ex 4 UNO ( United Nations Organization), TUC (Trades Union Congress), NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) 
 
 
 
 
 
 

17. SCIENTIFIC PROSE STYLE

The L of S is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. The language means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise, unemotional, devoid of any individuality; there is a striving for the most generalized form of expression. [1]  The first and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence. A second important feature is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. Due to the rapid   dissemination of scientific and technical ideas, some scientific and technical terms begin to circulate outside the narrow field they belong to and eventually begin to develop new meanings. But the majority of terms remain the property of scientific prose. Hardly a single word will be found here which, in contrast to the belles-lettres style, is used in more than one meaning. Likewise, neutral and common literary words used in scientific prose will be explained, even if their meaning is only slightly modified, either in the context (by a parenthesis or an attributive phrase) or in a foot-note. A third characteristic feature of scientific style is  what we may call sentence-patterns. They are of three types: postulatory, argumentative and formulative. Every piece of scientific prose will begin with postulatory pronouncements which are taken as self-evident and needing no proof. A fourth observable feature of the style of modern scientific prose is the use of quоtatiоns and references. The references also have a definite compositional pattern, namely, the name of the writer referred to, the title of the work quoted, the publishing house, the place and year it was published, and the page of the excerpt quoted or referred to. A fifth feature of scientific style is the frequent use  of foot-notes, not of the reference kind, but digressive in character. The impersonality of scientific writings can also be considered a typical feature of this style. This quality is mainly revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions.3 Scientific experiments are generally described in the passive voice, for e.g.[2] Impersonal passive  constructions are frequently used with the verbs suppose, assume, presume, conclude, infer, point out,etc., as in: 'It should be pointed out', 'It must not be assumed', 'It must be emphasized',  'It can be inferred', etc. The passive constructions frequently used in the scientific prose of the exact sciences are not indispensable in the humanities. This, perhaps, is due to the fact that the data and methods of investigation applied in the humanities are less objective.  Here are two samples of scientific prose, one from a linguistic paper and the other from a textbook on  chemistry.[3] The remarkable difference between the two samples lies in the fact that the second one requires a far greater amount of preliminary knowledge than the first one. Although both samples are impersonal in form, they nevertheless differ in the amount of objectivity, the first being less objective in stating data. Further, in the first excerpt views and opinions are expressed. In the second none are given. In both samples the syntax is governed by logical reasoning, and there are no emotional elements whatsoever. Historical words There is still another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic, viz. historical words. By-gone periods in the life of any society are marked by historical events. Historical words have no synonyms, whereas archaic words have been replaced by modern synonyms. Archaic words are primarily and predominantly used in the creation of a realistic background to historical novels. It must be pointed out, however, that the use of historical words (terms) in a passage written in scientific style, say, in an essay on the history of the Danish invasion, will bear no stylistic function at al Archaic words, obsolescent and obsolete words

There are 3 stages in the aging process of words: 1. The beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent, i. e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. To this category first of all belong morphological forms belonging to the earlier stages in the development of the language. To the category of obsolescent words belong many French borrowings which have been kept in the literary language as a means of preserving the spirit of earlier periods 2. The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English-speaking community. These words are called  obsоlete. 3. The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable 

19. METAPHOR AND SIMILE

METAPHOR

The term 'metaphor' means transference of some quality from one object to another.

A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties.

If a metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects, we deal with personification, as in "the face of London", or "the pain of the ocean".Personification can make a narration more interesting and lively.

Semantically metaphors are genuine and trite.Metaphor, as all other SDs, is fresh, original, genuine, when first used, and trite, hackneyed, stale when often repeated.a ray of hope,floods of tears.

And structurally metaphors can be simple/elementary and sustained.Simple-they consist of 1 word confined to only one image-you are my sun.When the speaker (writer) in his desire to present an elaborated image does not limit its creation to a single metaphor but offers a group of them, each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon, this cluster creates a sustained (prolonged) metaphor.

Genuine metaphors are mostly to be found in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are generallу used as expressive means in newspaper articles, in oratorical style and even in scientific language.Functions of metaphors-create imagery,aims at identifying the objects,makes ideas more concrete,reveals author`s emotional attitude,sometimes they are used to be more precise.

SIMILE

A structure of three components is presented in a stylistic device extremely popular at all times - simile.  Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes. The one which is  compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. . The tenor and the vehicle form the two semantic poles of the simile, which are connected by one of the following link words: "like", "as", "as though", "as like", "such as", "as ... as",  etc. "She is like her mother" is  a simple comparison, used  to state an evident fact. "She is like a rose" is a simile used for purposes of expressive evaluation, emotive explanation, highly individual description.

in a metaphor two unlike objects (actions, phenomena) were identified on the grounds of possessing one common characteristic. In a simile two objects are compared on the grounds of similarity of some quality.

A simile, often repeated, becomes trite and adds to the stock of language phraseology.

the metaphor aims at identifying the objects, while the simile aims at find- 
ing some point of resemblance by keeping the objects apart. That is why 
these two stylistic devices are viewed as belonging to two different groups 
of SDs. They are different in their linguistic nature.

Functions-emphasize partial identity of 2 objects,give new characteristics to the referent,to deepen our knowledge of the object described. 

20. METAPHOR AND METONYMY

METAPHOR

The term 'metaphor' means transference of some quality from one object to another.

A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties.

If a metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects, we deal with personification, as in "the face of London", or "the pain of the ocean".

Semantically metaphors are genuine and trite.Metaphor, as all other SDs, is fresh, original, genuine, when first used, and trite, hackneyed, stale when often repeated.a ray of hope,floods of tears.

And structurally metaphors can be simple/elementary and sustained.Simple-they consist of 1 word confined to only one image-you are my sun.When the speaker (writer) in his desire to present an elaborated image does not limit its creation to a single metaphor but offers a group of them, each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon, this cluster creates a sustained (prolonged) metaphor.

Genuine metaphors are mostly to be found in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are generallу used as expressive means in newspaper articles, in oratorical style and even in scientific language.Functions of metaphors-create imagery,aims at identifying the objects,makes ideas more concrete,reveals author`s emotional attitude,sometimes they are used to be more precise.

METONYMY –  created by a diff semantic process, based on contiguity of m-g of objects\phenomena, nearness of objects.

The most common types of relations on which metonymy is based are 1)a concrete thing is used instead of an abstract notion (monarchy - crown), 2)the container instead of a thing contained (the hall applauded, the kettle is boiling),3) the material instead of the thing made of it (ur silk will be a mess of wrinkles), 4)the instrument which the doer uses in performing the action(the author lives by his pen only).

Metonymy and metaphor differ in the way they are deciphered (расшифровываются). In case of metaphor, one image excludes the other, but we have only one object to refer to, the object which denoted by the metaphor instead of his real name. This is not the case with metonymy, which does not exclude objects. In this example “the moustache stands for the man himself” the moustache & the man himself arent alternative, they are both perceived by the reader’s mind.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

21 Epithet, its semantic & structural types

EPITHET –  an SD emphasizing some quality of a person, thing\idea. Function –  characterization, very subjective and evaluative. Shouldn’t be confused with logical attributes. (wooden table, wooden face, grey sky – steel sky.) Epithets are said to create an image, there is a certain mood attributed, while logical attribute give characteristic properties of an object or a theme.

Fixed epithet(stable) – they become fixed through long and repeated use, go back to fairy tales, ballads, folklore. (красна девица, диво дивное, a fair lady, true love, green wood).

Structurally epithets can be of different kinds: 1. As single epithet=> adj+noun (angry sky, dead silence); 2. In pairs (a tired old town); 3. In strings, chains (in the cold grey street-washing milk delivering, shutters-coming-off-the shops-early morning the midnight train from Paris arrived on Strasbourg); 4. Simple –they are used singly in the attributive or adverbial positions(an angry sky); 5.Compound – built by compound adj (a cloud-shaped giant, flout-like voice); 6. Two step structures – an adv+adj (a pompously majestic female);

7. A phrase\s-ce epithet – (I don’t care attitude); 8. Inverted, reversed, metaphorical  - based on a metaphor and is commonly expressed by an of-phrase(the toy of a girl, a ghost of smile, the devil of a woman.).

Used to characterize the object, to stress the peculiar features of the object described. To give an individual evaluation, to give an emotional assessment, to convey the ubjective attitude of the writer.

Logical attrib<=>Epithet:

1)Semantic criterion: - associated apithet (approximately = logical attrib); - unassociated epithet (subjective); fixed epithet.

2)Structural criterion: - simple; - compound; - phrase\s-ce.

3)Distributional criterion -> epithets which occur in pairs, a chain of epithets: - reversed (of-phrase), - transferred (an ordinary, logical attrib, which describes a human, his state, but is made here to descr an animate obj) 

22. Hyperbole and understatement.

Hyperbole - a SD which is also has the function of intensifying one certain property of the object described. Hyperbole- a SD in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration on the foregrounding of the emotive meaning. It can be defined as a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unlike periphrasis) to the object or phenomenon. In its extreme form this exaggeration is carried to an illogical degree, sometimes an absurdum. [1] Like many stylistic devices, hyperbole may lose its quality as a stylistic device through frequent repetition and become a unit of the language-as-a-system; reproduced in speech in its unaltered (неизменной) form. [2] Hyperbole is one of the most common expressive means of our everyday speech. Trite language hyperboles through long use have lost originality and remained signals of the speaker’s roused emotions. Hyperbole may be the final effect of another SD- metaphor, simile, irony…Hyperbole can be expressed by all notional parts of speech, but there are words which are used more often than others: ”all, every, everybody, ever, never, a thousand …” The aim of hyperbole – to exaggerate quantity or quality. But when the size, shape, dimensions, characteristic features of the object are not overrated but intentionally underrated it is understatement.[3] Trite hyperboles and understatements are used in everyday speech, in dialogues in particular. Hyperbole is a device which sharpens the reader's ability to make a logical assessment of the utterance. This is achieved, as is the case with other devices, by awakening the dichotomy of thought and feeling where thought takes the upper hand though not to the detriment of feeling.

23 Irony

IRONY –  is based on the simultaneous realization of two meanings – dictionary and contextual. But they are opposed to each other. There is an interplay b-n negative and positive. Dictionary meaning – positive. In the context expresses negative evaluation (A fine business, to disturb a man reading news). It is the use of a word, a phrase\a sentence which has a positive meaning to express a negative one. We blame through praise. Sometimes irony may be realized through more than one element. We deal with macro context. Only after reading the book we can understand the irony of the title “the man of property”. # It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.

Function: - to express a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret;

     - to show the author's attitude to sth;

     - evaluation of an object\phenomenon;

     - to convey a negative meaning;

     - to produce a humorous effect;

- a word used ironically may sometimes express very subtle, almost imperceptible nuances of meaning.

24 Play on words: Pun & Zeugma

PUN –  a device based on policemy, homonymy, phonetic similarity. Used to achieve a humorous effect . The use of a word in such a way as to suggest 2 or more m-gs or the use of 2 or more words of the same or nearly the same sound with diff m-gs so as to cause laughter. Different meanings are realized simultaneously thus giving rise to ambiguity which can  lead to misunderstanding. # Is she engaged? - No, she is married; Nostalgy is like grammar: you find Past Perfect & Present Tense; There comes a period in every man's life, but she is just a semicolon in his.

Functions: - to create a humorous effect;

ZEUGMA(Lat – to join, to combine) – a simultaneous realization of 2 m-gs of a polysemantic unit. Belongs to lexico-semantic devices. It is the use of the word in the same grammatical but diff semantic relations to the adjacent w-s in the context. The primary & derivative m-gs clash. Each of the units stands out clearly. # the Vietnamese Surete that seemed to smell of urine & injustice; time & her aunt move slowly; She dropped a tear & a handkerchief; He lost his coat and his temper.

Functions: - to create a humorous effect;

            - to convey meanings in a more vivid and impressive manner;

            - to make speech more effective, they beautify and emphasize it;

            - to convey emotion and mood often in a non-literal sense

25 Periphrasis & Euphemism

PERIPHRASIS – an SD which consists of using a roundabout way of expression instead of a simpler one, to provide a more scientific, academic definition. Consists of using more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a word: # the disturberer of the piano keys -  a pianist--> both names and describes the object.

It both names & describes the obj. It was widely used in the Bible. Consists in expressing the meaning of the word using many or several words instead of by few or one=> indirect way of speaking. This device is understood only in context.

Types: 1)Traditional (dictionary, language) – my better half, the fair sex. ->belong to the lang as a system, fixed in the dictionary.

2)Stylistic – intensifies the quality by naming the object by the property , aims at pointing to one of the insignificant features or properties of the given object.

Periphrasis as an EM is a new genuine nomination of an object: # The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products of the fighting in Africa.

Types: 1)Logical – based on the logical associations: # instruments of distructions – guns; the most pardonable of human weaknesses. 2)Figurative – based either on metaphor or metonomy. The key word of the collocation is used figuratively: # to tie the knot – to get married; the punctual servant of all work – the sun.

Functions: - to provide a more scientific, complicated structure instead of one word;

- to both descibe & name the object;

- to convey an individual perception of an obj;

- to foreground a feature the writer wants to stress;

- to intensify the noticeable property of an object by naming the object by the property

EUPHEMISM –  used to replace an unpleasant word or phrase by a more acceptable, conventional one (a lady of doubtful age). Used to be a religious taboo. Dictated the avoidance of some terms.  A white washing device as it offers a more polite qualification.