In 1990, 119.55 million Americans were in the labor force, representing 63.0 percent of the population over the age of 16. The labor force has grown especially rapidly since 1955 as a result of the increased number of working women. Women now constitute more than half of America's total work force. The entry of the "baby boom" generation into the job market has also increased the work force. Part-time employment has increased as well—only about 55 percent of all workers have full-rime, full-year jobs—the rest either work part-time, part-year or both. The average American work week was 41 hours in 1989.

    American industries have become increasingly more service-oriented. Of 12.6 million new jobs created since 1982, almost 85 percent have been in service industries. Careers in technical, business and health-related fields have particularly experienced employee growth in recent years. Approximately 27 million Americans are employed in selling. Another 19.2 million work in manufacturing and 17.5 million work for federal, state and local governments.

    Recently, unemployment in the United States was calculated at about seven percent. The government provides short-term unemployment compensation (from 20 to 39 weeks depending upon economic conditions) to replace wages lost between jobs. About 80 per cent of all wage and salary earners are covered by unemployment insurance. In addition, both the government and private industry provide job training to help unemployed and disadvantaged Americans.

 

Agriculture in the USA

 

Almost 21mln.people or  about  17  %  of  all  population  works  in  the agriculture of  USA.  Nearly  3  million  independent  farms  deliver  feed products to the American consumers. The area of an average farm in  the  USA makes about 400 acres. In 1984 there were more than  2.3  million  farms  in the country. However, the very large farms -those with 1000 acres  and  more account for more than 40% of farm  acreage.  The  largest  manufacturers  of grains making up 2,3% of total of farms, produce about 50 % of wheat in  the country. Similarly, the largest 2 %  of  the  manufacturers  of  chickens - broilers own 70 % of market sales.

    Number of firms producing selected products in the USA. 1980es. 

 

    There are therefore some concentrations of agricultural production  in hands  of  the  largest  manufacturers  in  the  USA.   But   even   largest agricultural manufacturers accept the  established  prices  for  production. For example, 27000 independent firms represent 2 % of the  manufacturers  of grain, which make up 50 % of grain production in the USA. The new firms  can also penetrate into the majority  of  agricultural  branches  with  relative ease. There are special branches - exceptions. For example, there have  been state regulation that have limited for many  years  the  number  of  tobacco producers. However, even domestic manufacturer, who  are  protected  against entry must compete for sales to the  foreign  manufacturers  in  the  export markets.

    State  tax  regulation  plays  important  roll  in  encouraging  of  farm development in USA. Since 1988 the tax rates on profit in  agriculture  have been established at a rate of 15 and 28% whereas earlier  they  ranged  from 11 up to 50 % with the intermediate rates.  Farms  with  the  income  up  to 50000 dollars pay tax at the 15 % rate, and every next 25000  dollars  at  - 28% rate. Since 1989 the size of the tax-free profit  has  increased  up  to 2000, and since 1990 - up to 5000 dollars.

    Calculation of surtax in USA agro industrial  complex  has  a  number  of peculiarities, each of which can represent a  tax  privilege.  The  USA  tax laws gives the farmers the right to subtract the costs connected  with  some works in agriculture and cattle breeding from the tax  paid.  Work  on  soil preservation, water resources protection, soil preparation for  farming  are of thus kind. The tax discounts works for the incomes  and  losses  suffered by the farmers in connection with the  sale  of  cattle  or  forages.  These losses are subtracted from the  farmer's  charges  and  the  more  favorable taxation mode is used for profit, than for  income  taxation.  The  farmers, who are engaged in cattle feeding use a tax privilege as a delay  of  income getting, that is all expenses are estimated per one year,  and  all  incomes on his (its) realization the next year. Besides the farmers have  the  right to apply methods of accelerated amortization of  agricultural  machines  and equipment on higher rates. It allows them to considerably reduce  the  sizes of the taxed income, which is to pay the taxes on  the  lower  rates.  As  a result, the more machines, equipment, the farmer gets,  the  less  taxes  he pays this year and in the following period of amortization. The farmers  are given alternative to use new amortization rules to reduce the  taxed  income or to make allocation by equal shares for 3-45 years depending on  the  kind of property.

    The tax rules for corporations limit the sizes of the allowed  allocation from the  taxed  income  connected  with  expenses  for  fodder,  seeds  and fertilizer. The farmer corporation can receive the right for discounts  only after actual complete consumption of materials.

    The special tax privileges are given  to  farmer  cooperative  societies. Thus,  fruit  growing  cooperative  societies,  marketing,  and  also  those purchasing farm machines are released from surtax payment.

    One of major functions of tax privileges in agriculture is  to  stimulate scientific and technical development, accelerate  realization  of  technical novelties, which, as a rule, require large additional  capital  investments. To stimulate investments of the farmer capital in technical innovations  the special conditions of the taxation are provided these tax laws:

• Establishment of the tax discounts on the investments gain;
• Budget compensation for tax payments on investment gain;
• Prolongation of tax payments and capital investment gain for  the  period of end of investment process completion.

    Farmer has the right to take advantage of one of the  favorable  taxation terms, if he introduces  innovations,  which  are  found  in  the  state  or regional agrarian programs. The farmers participating in the state  agrarian programs have the right to detain tax payment capital  investments  gain  as long as the investment process is completed. The  tax  volume  decreases  by inflation, and the sum of the  tax  is  distributed  per  years  in  regular intervals.

    The state tax regulation in the USA enables the farmers of  the  advanced countries to change the size tax volume at the expense  of  use  of  various tax privileges and discounts. The  numerous  tax  privileges  reduce  fiscal functions of taxation system in agrarian sector to a minimum level.

    The main role in belongs to the agrarian legislation. The acts  determine the basic forms and methods of state influence  on  agriculture.  In  recent years  the  role  of  budget  assignments  for  support  of  the  prices  on agricultural production and incomes of the farmers, as well  for  regulation of  market  structure  of  agricultural  production   and   foodstuffs   has increased.  Organization  of  Economic  Assistance  to  Development   (ОEAD) estimates that the USA farmers received 22 milliards dollars  for  financial support.

    Specific feature of financing of USA economy is that the means  from  the federal  budget  are  primary  allocated  for  the  target  programs  having national importance. So, two programs work in agroindustrial complex at  the federal level: "Stabilization of the Incomes" and  "science  and  scientific service". Besides more than  10  interbranch  target  programs  of  national importance providing interests of an  agriculture  and  farmers  work  at  a federal level. There are soil  conservation  and  land  withdrawal  program, food help to needy population, marketing and inspection, social  development of rural areas. The budget means distributed according with  these  programs are summarized and allocated  to  the  branch  federal  budget  of  the  USA agriculture. Its basic part (more  than  80  %)  is  supervised  by  the  US Ministry of agriculture through  good-credit  corporation  (GCC)  and  other financial-credit bodies. The rest of 20 % of means are  distributed  through state and local management bodies. Of all US budget charges about  60  %  is necessary for realization of farmer income stabilization program and  social - charitable support of needy farmers, almost 10 % is  distributed  for  the programs development village at the state and regional level, about  5  %  — for scientific researches and scientific service, 25  %  —  for  social  and native-protective purposes. Thus, 3/4 of budget assignments allocated to  US agriculture are spent for farm production  regulation  and  1/4  for  social purposes.

    This system  of  federal  budget  distribution  allow  to  regulate  farm production, through the  prices,  loans,  credits  and  grants.  The  target program  "Stabilization  Of  the  Incomes  "  is  subdivided  into  3  large programs: " Prices and Incomes Support ", " Crop Insurance  ".  "  The  Farm Credit ".

    The direct gratuitous payments from the federal budget are very important and have great influence over the farmers. The grants are powerful  economic stimulus of involving farmers in realization of the state programs  of  farm regulation. The farmers, who carry out the taken obligations on  realization of the state agrarian programs have right to get them,  as  well  as  loans. The grants use stimulates farmers to intensify farm production in  case  the sowing areas are  reduced  permanent  income  even  due  to  the  system  of compensatory payments  from  the  federal  budget  farmers  are  ensured  in permanent income even if the situation is not favorable.

    The US agricultural  policies  provide  minimal  and  steady  prices  for agricultural  products.  The  price  support  frequently  results  in   huge surpluses of agricultural products, which authorities are compelled  to  buy and to keep prices from sharp fall. Agricultural  price  support,  alongside with other policies inducing farmers to  keep  their  land  idle  have  also brought contributed  in  the  prices  paid  by  the  American  consumers  to subsidize the farmers.

 

Higher Education in the USA.

 

    Finishing school is the beginning of an independent life for  millions  of school graduates. Many roads are open before them. But it  is  not  an  easy thing to choose a profession out of more  than  the  2000  existing  in  the world.

    Out of the more than three million students who graduate from high  school each year, about one million go on for “higher education”. Simply  by  being admitted into one of the most respected universities in the  United  States, a high school graduate achieves a degree of success. A college at a  leading university might receive applications from two percent of these high  school graduates, and then accept only one out of every ten who  apply.  Successful applicants at such colleges are usually chosen on the basis of :

    a) high school records;

    b) recommendations from high school teachers;

    c) the impression they make during interviews at the university;

    d) their scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT);

    The system of  higher  education  in  the  United  States  is  complex.  It comprises four categories of institution:

    1. The university, which may contain:

    - several  colleges  for  undergraduate  students  seeking  a bachelor’s four-year  degree;

    - one or  more  graduate  schools  for  those  continuing in specialized studies beyond the bachelor’s degree to  obtain a master’s or a doctoral degree;

    2. The four-year undergraduate institution – the college – most  of which are not part of a university;

    3.  The  technical  training  institution,  at  which  high  school graduates may take courses ranging from six months to four years in duration, and learn a wide variety of technical skills, from hair  styling through  business   accounting  to computer  programming;

    4. The two-year, or community  college,  from  which  students  may enter  many professions or may  go  to  four-year  colleges  or universities.

    Any of these institutions, in any category,  might  be  either  public  or private, depending on the source of  its  funding.  There  is  no  clear  or inevitable distinction in terms of quality of education offered between  the institutions, which are publicly or privately funded. However, this  is  not to say that all institutions enjoy equal prestige, nor  that  there  are  no material differences among them.

    Many universities and colleges,  both  public  and  private,  have  gained reputations  for  offering  particularly  challenging   courses,   and   for providing their students with a  higher  quality  of  education.  The  great majority  are  generally  regarded  as  quite  satisfactory.  A  few   other institutions, conversely, provide  only  adequate  education,  and  students attend classes, pass examinations and graduate as merely competent, but  not outstanding, scholars and professionals. The factors determining whether  an institution is one of the best, or one of lower prestige, are: quality  of teaching  faculty, quality of  research facilities,  amount  of funding available for libraries, special programs, etc., and the competence and number of applicants for admission, i.e. how selective the  institution  can be in choosing its students. All of these factors reinforce one another.  In the United States it is generally recognized that there are  more  and  less desirable institutions in which to study and from  which  to  graduate.  The more desirable institutions are generally – but not always – more costly  to attend, and having graduated from one of them may bring distinct  advantages as an individual seeks employment opportunities and social  mobility  within the society. Competition to get  into  such  a  college  prompts  a  million secondary school  students  to  take  the  SATs  every  year.  But  recently emphasis on admissions  examinations  has  been  widely  criticized  in  the United States  because  the  examinations  tend  to  measure  competence  in mathematics and English. In defense of using the  examinations  as  criteria for admissions, administrators at many universities say that SATs provide  a fair way for deciding whom to admit when they have 10 or 12  applicants  for every first-year student seat.

    Can America’s colleges and universities  rest  on  their  accomplishments? About 12 million students currently attend schools of  higher  education  in America. They are students in a society that believe  in  the  bond  between education and democracy.  Still, many Americans are not  satisfied  with  the  condition  of  higher education in their country. Perhaps the most widespread complaint has to  do with the college curriculum as a whole and with the wide range of  electives in particular. In the middle of 1980s, the Association of American  Colleges (AAC) issued a report that called for teaching a body  of  common  knowledge to all college students. The National Institute of Education (NIE) issued  a somewhat similar report, “Involvement in Learning”. In its report,  the  NIE concluded that the college curriculum  has  become  “excessively  vocational and work-related”. The report also warned  that  college  education  may  no longer be developing in students “the  shared  values  and  knowledge”  that traditionally  bind Americans together. A serious charge: Is it true?

    For the moment, to some degree, it probably is. Certainly,  some  students complete their degree work without a course in Western  Civilization  –  not to mention  other  world  cultures.  Others  leave  college  without  having studied science or government. As one response,  many  colleges  have  begun reemphasizing a core curriculum that all students must master.

    Such problems are signs that American higher education is changing, as  it has throughout its history. And, as in the past, this change may be  leading in unexpected directions. The Puritans set up colleges to  train  ministers. But their students made their mark as  the  leaders  of  the  world’s  first constitutional democracy. The land grant  colleges  were  founded  to  teach agriculture and engineering to the builders of  the  American  West.  Today, many of these colleges are  leading  schools  in  the  world  of  scientific research. Americans have always had a stake in  “making  the  system  work”. They have  especially  critical  reasons  for  doing  so  in  the  field  of education. People in the  United  States  today  are  faced  with  momentous questions:  “What  is  America’s  proper  role   as   the   world’s  oldest constitutional democracy; its largest, economy; its first nuclear power?”

    Americans cherish their right to express opinions on all such issues.  But the people of the United States are also  painfully  aware  of  how  complex such issues are. To take part in dealing with new problems,  most  Americans feel they need all the information they can get. Colleges  and  universities are the most important centers of such learning. And  whatever  improvements may be demanded, their future is almost guaranteed by  the  American  thirst to advance and be well informed.  In  fact,  the  next  charge  in  American education may be a trend for people to continue their education  in  college – for a lifetime.