Автор работы: Пользователь скрыл имя, 07 Января 2011 в 11:06, реферат
Great Britain is an island on the outer edge of the European continent and its geographical situation has produced a certain insular spirit among its inhabitants, who tend, a little more perhaps than other people, to regard their own community as the centre of the world.
1. England and the English.
2. Scotland and the Scots.
3. Wales and the Welsh.
4. Northern Ireland and the Irish.
5. Literature.
“The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. People as they are”
Great Britain is an island on the outer edge of the European continent and its geographical situation has produced a certain insular spirit among its inhabitants, who tend, a little more perhaps than other people, to regard their own community as the centre of the world.
The insularity produces a certain particularizm among the numerous groups of whom the whole community is composed. The British look on foreigners in general with contempt and think that nothing is as well done elsewhere as in their own country. The English people have also been known as:
These characteristics have been noted by people from all over the world, but are they typical of all the Britons?
The ordinary Briton was seen to be friendly and sociable. There are, indeed, two nations, with basically different outlooks and characters, in Britain. The two nations are defined simply as the rich and the poor.
The traditional opinion about the British, or the English in earlier centuries, was based on the habits of those Britons who could afford to travel, the diplomats and the merchants. English vanity and arrogance grew as England fought off the competition from European countries and became the world’s leading trading nation, going on to industrialize rapidly.
Englishmen tend to be rather conservative, they love familiar things. They are hostile, or at least bored, when they hear any suggestion that some modification of their habits, or the introduction of something new and unknown into their lives, might be to their advantage.
This conservatism, on a national scale, may be illustrated by reference to the public attitude to the monarchy, an institution which is held in affection and reverence by nearly all English people.
Britain was supposed to be the land of law and order. Part of the British sense for law and orderliness is a love of precedent. For an Englishman, the best of all reason for doing something in a certain way is that it has always been done in that way.
The Britons are practical and realistic; they are infatuated with common sense. They are not misled by romantic delusions. The English sense and feeling for privacy is notorious. England is a land of brick fences and stone walls (often with glass embedded along the top), of hedges, of draperies at all the windows, and reluctant introductions, but nothing is stable now. English people rarely share hands except when being introduced for someone for the first time. They hardly ever shake hands with their friends except seeing after a long interval or saying good-bye before a long journey.
Snobbery is not so common in England today as it was at the beginning of the century. It still exists, however, and advertisers know how to use it in order to sell their goods. The advertisers are very clever in their way of snobbery.
Motorcar manufactures know how to use it in order to sell their cars: for example, advertise the colour of their cars as “Embassy black” or “Balmorals stone”. Embassy black is plain. Ordinary black, but the name suggests diplomats and all the social importance surrounds them, and this is what snobs need.
The British are prudent and careful about everything. Their lawns are closely cropped, their flowers are primly cultivated, and their trees are neatly pruned. Everything is orderly. Drinks are carefully measured, seats in the cinema are carefully assigned (even if the theatre is empty you are required to sit in the seat assigned to you), closing hours rigorously observed.
A tradition that is rooted only in their own soul, but in the minds of the rest of the world is the devotion of the English to animals. Animals are protected by law. If, for instance, any one leaves a cat to starve in an empty house while he goes for his holiday, he can be sent to prison. There are special dogs’ cemeteries. The Royal Society for the preservation of Cruelty to animals was founded half a century before its counterparts for the prevention of cruelty to children.
Most people in Britain work a five-day week, from Monday to Friday; schools, colleges and universities are also closed on Saturdays and Sundays. As Friday comes along, as people work they say to each other:” Have a nice weekend”. Then on Monday morning they ask: “Did you have a nice weekend?” On Sunday mid-mornings most British people indulge in fairly light activities such as gardening, washing the car, shelling pears or chopping mint for Sunday lunch, or taking the dog for a walk. Another most popular activity consists of a visit to a “pub” – either a walk to the “local”, or often nowadays a drive to a more pleasant “country pub” if one lives in a built-up area. The national drink in Britain is beer, and the “pub” where Englishmen go to drink to, is a peculiarly English institution.
Much leisure time is spent in individualistic pursuits, of which the most popular is gardening. Most English people love gardens, their own above all, and this is probably the reason why so many people prefer to live in houses rather than flats.
The British people have had a long tradition of democracy, not so much in the sense of creating formal institutions, but in the active sense of popular cooperation to uphold the will of the people.
So, the national character of the English has been very differently described, but most commentators agree over one quality, which they describe as fatuous self-satisfaction, serene sense of superiority, or insular pride. English patriotism is based on a deep sense of security. Englishmen are individuals may have been insecure, threatened with a loss of a job, unsure of themselves, or unhappy in many ways; but as a nation they have been for centuries secure, serene in their national successes. They have not lived in a state of hatred of their neighbours, as Frenchmen or Germans have also lived. This national sense of security, hardly threatened by the Armada, or by Napoleon, or by the First World War, has been greatly weakened by the Second World War and by the invention of the atomic bomb.
There is a contrast between the unity the English display in a crisis, their strong sense for public order and their extraordinary toleration of individual eccentricities. Germans are usually astounded by what they regard as the Englishman’s lack of respect for authority and discipline. Frenchmen are often puzzled by the vehemence of English political debates, by the Hyde Park public orator and similar aspects of English life, which is in their own country, would seem signs of grave political disturbance. This sort of contrast has led to the common belief held by the foreigners, and indeed by the Englishmen themselves that they are a most illogical people, always preferring practical compromises to theoretical exactness.
There is a contrast between English democracy, the English sense of the dignity and importance of individual and very great social equality. But Victorian and Edwardian England – which foreigners still think of as the typical England – did display extremes of riches and poverty, and draw an almost castle line between ladies and gentlemen and those not ladies and gentlemen.
There is a contrast between the reputations of the English as hard-hearted practical men – the “nation of shopkeepers” – and the men of poetry – the countrymen of Shakespeare and Shelly. The English tradition in philosophy has always been realistic and hostile to mysticism; yet the English look down on the French as narrow rationalists.
In a nation of many million of people, there are many different kinds: good and bad, honest and dishonest, happy and unhappy. The British who live in other counties are not fully typical of their nation. The best- known quality of the English is reserve. If English people are making a journey by train, they will try to find an empty compartment. If they have to share it with a stranger, they may travel many miles without starting a conversation. If a conversation does start, personal questions like “How old are you?” or even “What is your name?” are not easily asked. Questions like “Where did you buy your watch?” or “What is your salary?”are impossible.
But the people of the North and West of Britain, especially the Welsh are much less reserved than those of the South and the East.
Closely related to English reserve is English modesty. If a person is, let us say, very poor at golf, and someone asks him if he is a good player, he will probably give an answer like “I’m not bad” or “I think, I am quite good”, or “ Well, I am very keen on golf”.
The famous English sense of humour is similar. Its ideal is the ability to laugh at oneself – at one’s own faults. “He is a man of humour” or “He has no sense of humour”. Is often heard in Britain, where is so highly prized.
People who live in Scotland are called the Scots. They are also called Scottish or Scotsmen. Scotsmen will be rather annoyed if you call them Englishmen.
A lot of Scottish family names begin with “Mac” or “Mc” – like MacDonald, McLane. And Jock is a popular Scottish name for John or Jack. A lot of people in England call any Scotsman “Jock” even his name is Peter or David.
Every Scotsman belongs to a clan. A clan is a family group: all the people of the same family belong to the same clan. There are 300 different clans in Scotland. Each clan has its own special tartan. A tartan may be in different colours. It is used for clothes. By the tartan you can learn which clan the man belongs to. There are more than 300 tartans: some clans have more than one tartan.
The Royal family wore the Stuart tartan because they came from the family of the Stuart Kings of Scotland and England. But now the Queen of Great Britain has another tartan. It is grey with black, red and blue.
A Scotsman’s traditional clothes are socks, shoes, a kilt, a tie, a jacket and a bonnet. Some people in the north of Scotland wear a kilt every day. But in other parts of the country most Scottish people wear just the same clothes as the English. They put on their traditional clothes only on holidays and wear them with pleasure.
Scottish people like to dance very much. Glasgow has more dancing schools than any other European city. There are dances for groups of people and there are other dances – more difficult ones, - which are only for one or two people. Scottish people speak English with their own accent.
Scottish people don’t like to spend money on themselves but they like spending money on their friends and visitors.
Scottish weddings are rather interesting. Gretna Green is the famous Scottish village just beyond the border. In the old days runaway couples escaped from England to Gretna Green to get married. The practice started in the year of 1774. In that year a bill was passed in England forbidding marriages of persons under 18 without their parents consent. In Scotland the legal age was 16 – and still is for that matter. Until the year 1856 the young couple could be married at once at any place in Scotland, without having to stay there for some time.
Gretna Green was the nearest village across the Scottish border, only ten miles north of Carlisle, on the main highway. To get there took the least time and the least money.
The blacksmith at Gretna Green was always ready to perform the marriage ceremony at a small fee. The formalities were very simple. All that was needed was a declaration made by the young couple in the presence of two witnesses. Visitors to Gretna Green can still see the old blacksmith’s shop and the famous marriage room in it.
The old tradition is still remembered. Many young couples who can’t get married in England because they are under still think it romantic to go to Gretna Green. But today they must have enough money to stay there for three weeks.
It is indeed rare in this modern world to find a national anthem that stressed so much the artistic aspect of the country. But it is necessary to understand fully this attitude before one can appreciate the subtle change that takes place as we pass the borderline between England and Wales. For no one can cross this frontier into the first little village without realizing that no one is no longer in England. This is due not solely to the question of the language, although Welsh is indeed a sufficient obstacle to most of us who desire to penetrate more deeply into mysteries of the Welsh character, but rather a profound difference in the way of living, in the attitude towards life of this small, tenacious people.
For the people of Wales represent the remnants of those pugnacious Celtic people who were subjected to centuries of Roman rule, underwent the invasions of the Saxons who drove them to their mountain fastnesses and endured the phenomenal organizing efficiency of the Norman conqueror without ceding one iota of their cultural independence.
And here is the secret of the essential difference of the Welsh. An old welsh proverb says “The Celt always fights and always losses”. Military and politically this has been true of Welsh, but during those centuries of ceaseless strife the Welshman came to realize that there was something he has always been unconsciously struggling to prevent, an indefinite passion for the music and poetry born of his lonely solitary converse with the infinite, and, in this last and greatest battle, the Welshman has belied the proverb and emerged victorious.
Thus, very briefly we have an explanation of the extraordinary tenacity with which this people has clung to its traditions, its customs, its language, and its own way of life.
The Welsh are very proud of their language and culture. People in Wales speak English but at the same time have their own language – Welsh. Some Welsh people before they learn English. Some Welsh families speak Welsh to each other at home, but they read English in newspapers and English books.
The Welsh language act of 1967 said that the official documents should be in both languages, and most road signs are printed in English and in Welsh.
Since the 1960’s there has been increased interest in Welsh. At secondary schools almost 50 percent of all pupils learn Welsh as a first or second language. Since 1982 there has been an independent fourth TV channel broadcasting mainly in Welsh.
Also not many Welsh words are well-known in England, the word “eisteddfod” is understood by almost everybody, this is in Welsh name for an annual competition where people meet to dance, sing and read poems. Usually, only Welsh is spoken and in recent years they have attracted people who wish to protect against the influence of English on the Welsh language and culture.
Welsh family names are very often Jones, Williams, Morgan, Evans and Owen. That is why people in villages often call people by their jobs together with their family names. Then everybody knows which Jones they are speaking about. You can understand what Jones the Meat, William the Bread or Morgan the Fish do. Many other names came from the tradition of calling “son of” his father using the Welsh word “ap” (or “ab”). This “p” can be found in many Welsh names. For example, Gary Prichard, which is the name of the English Richardson.
Welsh living in England are often called the nickname “Taffy”. This may come from the river Taff, which runs through the capital Cardiff. Or it may come from “Daffydd”, the Welsh from “David”.
The Welsh wear the same clothes as the English. But on holidays a Welsh woman wears a red cloak, a long black skirt, an apron and a high black hat on her head. The men don’t have a national costume.
The Welsh are known in Great Britain for their singing. They like singing together. Every village has more than one chore. They sing in competitions, on holidays and every time they want to sing.
They sing very loudly when they are going to a football match in a bus, and they sing in the stadium, of course.
They are very proud of their national language and culture, they are very proud of Wales, too.
When we say ‘Wales” what should we call to mind? Its hills and mountains,- the highest is Snowdon. It was here that Sir Edmund Hillary and his team practiced before their famous expedition to the top of Mount Everest in 1953. It is said that the legendary King Arthur and his knights lived in Snowdonia. Another medieval legend is connected with a legend called Beddgelert at the top of Snowdon. Where Llewellyn the Great, a 13th century prince of North Wales, had his palace. He received from King John of England a magnificent hunting dog named Gellert. One day the prince went hunting without Gellert. When the dog ran to meet him on his return, Llewellyn saw that Gellert was splashed with blood. The prince, alarmed, ran to find his little son. He found the child’s bed empty and the floor covered with blood. Sure that Gellert had killed his son; Llewellyn ran his sward through his dog’s body. In the next minute he found the child unhurt and, nearby, the dead body of the powerful wolf. It was then clear that Gellert had saved the child’s life. Full of remorse, he buried Gellert and put a commemorative tablet on his grave.
When we say “Wales”, we should know that all over Wales one will find wishing wells into which people still throw money. Some wishing wells are said to help lovers, others can heal and sick, or some so people say!
When we say “Wales” we should remember that a favourite souvenir for the tourists is Welsh love spoon. They are made of wood and are carved very beautifully. Originally, they were made by young men as a love taken for their sweethearts. There are many different designs demonstrating the skill and love of the hopeful suitor. If the girl kept this present, that was well, but if she sent it back, she didn’t want him.
When we say “Wales”, we should call to mind that there are places in the country of Gwynedd connected with the well-known Welsh legends. Thus, the town of Aberdovery is known for an old burst the protecting walls and submerged a large part of the town including the church and it is said that if you listen carefully, you will still hear faint sound of the bells as they sway to and fro for with the movement of the water.
When we say “Wales”, we should remember the long-bow, the historical weapon of the Welsh King Edward I, the one who conquered Wales in the 13th century and made his son, just born in Caernarvon Castle, the first Prince of Wales borrowed from the Welsh the use of the long-bow and adopted it as a special weapon of his infantry. The long-bow was drawn and sent a long feathered arrow which could go right through a Knight’s armor. Its range was about 250 yards.
When we say “Wales”, we should call to mind the Welsh to preserve their language. As we know, Welsh people are of Celtic origin and Welsh is a Celtic language. It belongs to a separate subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages and is as unlike English as English is unlike Italian or Belorussian. In its present form, it has a highly developed system of the Welsh language also differs considerable from that of English ones. The writing system is simpler than that of English because, with few exceptions, a letter or group of letters always correspond to the same sound and a sound is always expressed by the same letter or a group of letters.
The following Celtic language still exists: Irish, Scottish, Gaelic, Welsh and Breton. Scottish Gaelic is dying out. It is restricted to the Hebrides and to a narrow border in the north and west of Scotland. The number of speakers of Gaelic is now about 100,000 and they are speaking also English. Irish is the official language of Irish Republic. It is spoken by about 4 million people. Welsh is spoken in Wales by about 1 million people. Most Welsh children speak it at home and learn it at school side by side with English. It is cultivated and protected by Welsh patriots.