Сложные предложения

         There are also sentences which might be termed semi-interrogative. The third sentence in the following passage belongs to this type:

         «Well, I daresay that's more revealing about poor George than you. At any rate, he seems to have survived it.»  «Oh, you’ve seen him?» She did not particularly mark her question for an answer, but it was, after all, the pivot-point, and Bone found himself replying – that indeed he had. (BUECHNER) The sentence Oh, you’ve seen him? is half-way between the affirmative declarative sentence, You have seen him, and the interrogative sentence, Have you seen him? Let us proceed to find out the precise characteristics of the sentence in the text as against the two sentences just given for the sake of comparison. From the syntactical viewpoint, the sentence is declarative, as the mutual position of subject and predicate is, you have seen, not have you seen, which would be the interrogative order. In what way or ways does it, then, differ from a usual declarative sentence? That is where the question of the intonation comes in. Whether the question mark at the end of the sentence does or does not mean that the intonation is not that typical of a declarative sentence, is hard to tell, though it would rather seem that it does. To be certain about this a phonetic experiment should be undertaken, but in this particular case the author gives a context which itself goes some way toward settling the question. The author's words, She did not particularly mark tier question for an answer, seem to refer to the intonation with which it was pronounced: the intonation must not have been clearly interrogative, that is not clearly rising, though it must have differed from the regular falling intonation to some extent: if it had not been at all different, the sentence could not have been termed a «question», and the author does call it a question. Reacting to this semi-interrogative intonation, Bone (the man to whom the question was addressed) answered in the affirmative. It seems the best way, on the whole, to term such sentences semi-interrogative. Their purpose of course is to utter a somewhat hesitating statement and to expect the other person to confirm it.

         Imperative sentences also show marked peculiarities in the use of modal words. It is quite evident, for example, that modal words expressing possibility, such as perhaps, maybe, possibly, are incompatible with the notion of order or request. Indeed, modal words are hardly used at all in imperative sentences.

         The notion of exclamatory sentences and their relation to the three established types of declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences presents some difficulty. It would seem that the best way to deal with it is this. On the one hand, every sentence, whether narrative, interrogative, or imperative, may be exclamatory at the same time, that is, it may convey the speaker's feelings and be characterized by emphatic intonation and by an exclamation mark in writing. This may be seen in the following examples: But he can't do anything to you! (R. WEST) What can he possibly do to you! (Idem) Scarlett, spare me! (M. MITCHELL)

         On the other hand, a sentence may be purely exclamatory, that is, it may not belong to any of the three types classed above. This would be the case in the following examples: «Well, fiddle-dee-dee!» said Scarlett. (M. MITCHELL) Oh, for God's sake, Henry! (Idem)

         However, it would perhaps be better to use different terms for sentences which are purely exclamatory, and thus constitute a special type, and those which add an emotional element to their basic quality, which is either declarative, or interrogative, or imperative. If this view is endorsed, we should have our classification of sentences according to type of communication thus modified:

         (1) Declarative (including emotional ones)

         (2) Interrogative (including emotional ones)

         (3) Imperative (including emotional ones)

         (4) Exclamatory

         This view would avoid the awkward contradiction of exclamatory sentences constituting a special type and belonging to the first three types at the same time.

         Types of Sentences According to Structure

         (1) Simple

         (2) Composite

         The relations between the two classifications should now be considered.

         It is plain that a simple sentence can be either declarative, or interrogative, or imperative. But things are somewhat more complicated with reference to composite sentences. If both (or all) clauses making up a composite sentence are declarative, the composite sentence as a whole is of course declarative too. And so it is bound to be in every case when both (or all) clauses making a composite sentence belong to the same type of communication (that is the case in an overwhelming majority of examples). Sometimes, however, composite sentences are found which consist of clauses belonging to different types of communication. Here it will sometimes he impossible to say to what type of communication the composite sentence as a whole belongs. We will take up this question when we come to the composite sentence.

         Some other questions connected with the mutual relation of the two classifications will be considered as we proceed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

         1.2 Types of Subordinate Clauses 

         Subject Clauses

         The subject clause is the only one used in the function of a primary part of the sentence.

         The peculiarity of the subject clause is its inalienability from the principal clause. Thus in the sentence What you mean is clear the subordinate clause What you mean is used as the subject. If it is cut off from the rest of the sentence, what remains (is clear) cannot be treated as a clause either in meaning or in structure. It is synsemantic 1 in the sense that it can be understood only in combination with its subordinate part.

         Subject clauses are introduced by conjunctions (if, whether, that), conjunctive pro-nouns (who, which, what, whose, whichever, whoever, whatever, etc.) and pro-adverbs (how, when, where, why).

         Why she left him is a mystery. (Jerome).

         Complement Clauses

         a) Predicative Clauses

         The sentence The question is where he can be found consists of the principal clause the question is and the predicative clause where he can be found. The predicative complement, as usual, is at the same time the notional predicate.

         Predicative clauses are introduced by the same conjunctions and pronouns as subject clauses. They are mostly attached to the link-verb to be in the principal clause, though they may occur with to look, to feel and some other links.

         He felt as if something in him were collapsing. (Heym).

         Each little household looked as though it were picnicking in its own back room. (Oxenham).

         Predicative clauses sometimes function as objective predicatives, as in You'll make her what you like, she is pliable enough. (Braddon).

         b) Object Clauses

         They are introduced by the same conjunctions and connective pronouns as subject and predicative clauses. They are often joined to their principal clauses asyndetically.

         Object subordinate clauses may be either prepositionless or prepositional.

         Now tell me what happened at the meeting. (Shaw).

         Cusins. Barbara: I am going to accept this offer.

         Barbara: I thought you would. (lb.).

         I was thinking of what the Third Reich had done and said so. (Snow).

         An object clause (like an object in a simple sentence) may be preceded by the anticipatory object it as in I think it very significant that he refused to communicate with the Sheltons. (Braddon).

         The usual place of an object clause ij after the principal clause, though it may be placed before the principal clause for the purpose of connecting two thoughts, the object clause denoting something familiar, mentioned previously, what we proceed from.

         Why he declined that offer I can't tell. (Black).

         Whether she had been wise in this she was utterly unable to decide. (Galsworthy).

         c) Adverbial Clauses

         Adverbial clauses serve to express a variety of adverbial relations and, consequently, they are introduced by» a great number of subordinating conjunctions. Asyndetic subordination is not typical of adverbial clauses (barring those of condition) since it is mainly the conjunction that differentiates one kind of adverbial clause from another.

         Cf. When he was young… Though he was young… Because he was young…

         Of the three types of adverbial complements – qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial – adverbial clauses mostly function as the last mentioned, as adverbials of situation or external conditions.

         However, we take issue with L.S. Barkhudarov and D.A. Shteling over their statement that adverbial clauses are used exclusively as adverbial complements of external conditions.

         The very examples they produce contradict this statement.

         In the sentence Mike acted as though nothing had happened (Hemingway) the adverbial clause shows how he acted, in what manner he acted. Consequently, it shows the inner nature of the action, its quality.

         The meaning of manner is mostly interwoven with that of comparison.

         All hovels should serve it and love it as he did. (Randall).

         Adverbial clauses may occupy different places in the complex sentence. They occur before their principal clause, after it, and even within it, which shows that the position of adverbial clauses (like that of adverbial complements in simple sentences) is less fixed and rigid than that of other subordinate clauses functioning as secondary parts.

         E. g. I advise you, if you cherish your private life, not to let him frighten you. (Randall).

         If he had glanced upwards, he would never have suspected that she was the grim bluestocking he awaited, (lb.).

         You'll get along too if you take us as you find us. (lb.).

         In accordance with their relations to the principal clause, mostly expressed by the conjunction or connective pronoun they are introduced by, adverbial clauses are classified into those of place (introduced by where, wherever), time (introduced by when, while, till, until, as, since, before, after, once, as soon as, etc.), cause (conjunctions – because, as, since) purpose (conjunctions – that, so that, in order that, lest), condition (conjunctions – if, in case, provided, unless, suppose, supposing), concession (conjunctions – though, although, as, conjunctive pronouns whatever, whoever, whichever), manner, or comparison (conjunctives–as if, as though).

         He trudged doggedly on until he reached the flat. (Dreiser).

         Because Carrie was pretty, the gentleman selected her photo, (lb.).

         Madame Lamotte would see, if Annette didn't. (Galsworthy).

         Though he was «the limit», he was yet her property. (lb.).

         Attribute Clauses

         Attributive clauses are postpositive adjuncts of nouns. They are commonly divided into relative and appositive clauses. Relative clauses are introduced by pronouns (or asyndetically). They are usually subdivided into restrictive and descriptive. The former serve to restrict the meaning of the antecedent, so that when the restrictive clause is left out, the sense of the sentence is seriously impaired.

         I don't like girls who can't hold their tongues. (Black). Then we had that raid when Uncle Ned was killed. (Gilbert).

         I know the stories you have been feeding him. (lb.).

         Descriptive clauses serve to supply some additional information which does not restrict or specify the meaning of the antecedent.

         E. g. The following day, which was Wednesday, we went to a solicitor. (Jerome).

         What about dining at the Embassy at Chawley, where they still brewed beer. (Gilbert).

         A variety of attributive clauses is the appositive clause, which formally differs from an attributive clause in being introduced by a conjunction (that, if, whether).

         The awful fact that I might never have met her is rather appalling. (Openheim).

         He married you for the romantic reason that he had fallen in love with yon. (Gilbert),

         Appositive subordinate clauses mostly occur after abstract nouns such as idea, thought, feeling, fact, impression, reason, doubt, question, etc.

         Extension Clauses

         Extension clauses are postpositive adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks.

         E. g. It is indeed doubtful how he had become aware that Roger was being buried that day. (Galsworthy).

         The subordinate clause is an extension of the adlink aware.

         I am happy that everything went off so nicely.

         The subordinate clause is an extension of the adjective happy.

         She is so pretty that all our boys are mad about her. (Heyer).

         The subordinate clause is an extension of the pro-adverb so.

         His head was still in such a whirl that he felt confused. (Dreiser).

         The subordinate clause is an extension of the pro-adjective such.

         The subordinate clauses in the last two sentences have a distinct consecutive meaning, and may be called 'extensions of result' (instead of the traditional 'adverbial clauses of result').

         Parenthetical Clauses

         Most authors who do not regard parenthetical elements as parts of the sentence treat It is past ten, I think as a simple sentence. We do not find this view convincing.

         1. If I think is not some part of the sentence, it must be regarded as an independent sentence. But it is not independent. Its intonation, position and meaning show that it is connected with It is past ten, to which it is appended and on which it depends.